62-546: A filling factory was a manufacturing plant that specialised in filling various munitions , such as bombs, shells , cartridges , pyrotechnics , and screening smokes . In the United Kingdom, during both world wars of the 20th century, the majority of the employees were women . In World War I , a filling factory belonging to the Ministry of Munitions was known as a National Filling Factory . In World War II ,
124-501: A shot , contains explosives or other fillings, in use since the 19th century. Artillery shells are ammunition that is designed to be fired from artillery which has an effect over long distances, usually indirectly (i.e., out of sight of the target). There are many different types of artillery ammunition, but they are usually high-explosive and designed to shatter into fragments on impact to maximize damage. The fuze used on an artillery shell can alter how it explodes or behaves so it has
186-492: A 130 hp (tax rating) six-cylinder engine. The Autocar noted that the carburettors had performed so very well in the last competition season there were only one or two minor modifications over the past 12 months. The first Morris Oxford used a White and Poppe engine, carburettor, clutch and gearbox. W & P made high speed petrol engines for many motor manufacturers but most of their large engines were for Dennis Brothers Limited who became their largest customer. By
248-557: A National Fuse Factory, 5 Trench Warfare Filling Factories, and 3 National Factories for Filling and Assembling Chemical Shells. Filling of small bore ammunition was increased by the creation of 4 government cartridge factories. Most of the national filling factories followed similar designs with large sites with small lightweight buildings well separated and connected by raised walkways which had lightweight rail lines so materials could be wheeled between buildings on trolleys. Shells, fuses, packing cases, and explosives were brought in by rail to
310-404: A corresponding modification has occurred in the method of supplying ammunition in the quantity required. As soon as projectiles were required (such as javelins and arrows), there needed to be a method of replenishment. When non-specialized, interchangeable or recoverable ammunition was used (e.g., arrows), it was possible to pick up spent arrows (both friendly and enemy) and reuse them. However, with
372-943: A filling factory belonging to the Ministry of Supply was known as a Royal Filling Factory (RFF) , or a Royal Ordnance Factory ( ROF ). These were all part of the Royal Ordnance Factory organisation, owned by the MoS. The filling of smoke screen canisters and other pyrotechnic devices was also carried out by fireworks manufacturers, particularly in World War II, but these are not specifically covered by this article. The filling factories' raw materials , such as TNT , RDX , or propellants , such as cordite , were manufactured in National Explosives Factories (World War I) or Explosive ROFs (World War II) and transported, by railway trains, to
434-493: A lodgings register was available. The work was generally 54 hours a week, 'but may be more', and the pay was 27 shillings, day and night shifts had to be undertaken by all workers, a fortnight of each at a time. For more information on women in munitions during WW1 see munitionettes . Some of these filling factories were temporary "war duration" only factories and they closed after the end of World War II. Other filling factories were designed to be permanent and to remain open after
496-615: A lost button on his trousers. While some of the factories were entirely built and managed by the Ministry of Munitions, others had local management. For instance NFF 10 was built on 109 acres of land owned by White and Poppe Ltd who had changed from engine production to manufacturing fuse bodies and 18pdr shell sockets. White and Poppe was given the contract for building the fuse filling plant in September 1915, and when completed in September 1916 it ran under their management. Unfortunately
558-409: A modern soldier is an assault rifle , which, like other small arms, uses cartridge ammunition in a size specific to the weapon. Ammunition is carried on the person in box magazines specific to the weapon, ammunition boxes, pouches or bandoliers. The amount of ammunition carried is dependent on the strength of the soldier, the expected action required, and the ability of ammunition to move forward through
620-422: A more specialized effect. Common types of artillery ammunition include high explosive, smoke, illumination, and practice rounds. Some artillery rounds are designed as cluster munitions . Artillery ammunition will almost always include a projectile (the only exception being demonstration or blank rounds), fuze and propellant of some form. When a cartridge case is not used, there will be some other method of containing
682-601: A new multi stage turbine pump and turned to motor lawnmowers as well. By the end of 1923 the possibility of manufacture of London omnibuses had arisen. Poppe designed a new car but it was decided against putting it into production. He remained a director of Dennis Brothers until he resigned in 1923 though he continued the link as a consultant to Dennis Brothers. The Rover Company , their Clegg being obsolete, bought Peter Poppe and his completed car design making him their chief engineer and putting his car design into production as their Rover 14/45 . Alfred White remained in charge of
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#1732787090572744-687: A problem with fuse failures caused a cessation of production in December 1916. The fault identified and the factory reorganised it restarted production in February 1917 as NFF 21, but still under White and Poppe management. When the Armistice came in November 1918, production was rapidly terminated and the female workforce laid off. A few sites, with much reduced male staff levels, were used for decommissioning unwanted ammunition. After clean up, most of
806-519: A significant impact on anti-tank ammunition design, now common in both tank-fired ammunition and in anti-tank missiles, including anti-tank guided missiles . Naval weapons were originally the same as many land-based weapons, but the ammunition was designed for specific use, such as a solid shot designed to hole an enemy ship and chain-shot to cut rigging and sails. Modern naval engagements have occurred over far longer distances than historic battles, so as ship armor has increased in strength and thickness,
868-401: A specialized effect on a target, such as armor-piercing shells and tracer ammunition , used only in certain circumstances. Ammunition is commonly labeled or colored in a specific manner to assist in its identification and to prevent the wrong ammunition types from being used accidentally or inappropriately. The term ammunition can be traced back to the mid-17th century. The word comes from
930-425: A warship is referred to as the "ship's magazine". On a smaller scale, magazine is also the name given to the ammunition storage and feeding device of a repeating firearm. Gunpowder must be stored in a dry place (stable room temperature) to keep it usable, as long as for 10 years. It is also recommended to avoid hot places, because friction or heat might ignite a spark and cause an explosion. The standard weapon of
992-408: Is activated by the fuze, which causes the ammunition effect (e.g., the exploding of an artillery round). The cartridge is the container that holds the projectile and propellant. Not all ammunition types have a cartridge case. In its place, a wide range of materials can be used to contain the explosives and parts. With some large weapons, the ammunition components are stored separately until loaded into
1054-413: Is packaged with each round of ammunition. In recent years, compressed gas, magnetic energy and electrical energy have been used as propellants. Until the 20th-century, gunpowder was the most common propellant in ammunition. However, it has since been replaced by a wide range of fast-burning compounds that are more reliable and efficient. The propellant charge is distinct from the projectile charge which
1116-456: Is the second-largest annual use of lead in the US, accounting for over 60,000 metric tons consumed in 2012. Lead bullets that miss their target or remain in a carcass or body that was never retrieved can enter environmental systems and become toxic to wildlife. The US military has experimented with replacing lead with copper as a slug in their green bullets which reduces the dangers posed by lead in
1178-495: The detonator of an explosive round or shell. The spelling is different in British English and American English (fuse/fuze respectively) and they are unrelated to a fuse (electrical) . A fuse was earlier used to ignite the propellant (e.g., such as on a firework) until the advent of more reliable systems such as the primer or igniter that is used in most modern ammunition. The fuze of a weapon can be used to alter how
1240-583: The propellant bags, usually a breech-loading weapon; see Breechloader . Tank ammunition was developed in WWI as tanks first appeared on the battlefield. However, as tank-on-tank warfare developed (including the development of anti-tank warfare artillery), more specialized forms of ammunition were developed such as high-explosive anti-tank (HEAT) warheads and armour-piercing discarding sabot (APDS), including armour-piercing fin-stabilized discarding sabot (APFSDS) rounds. The development of shaped charges has had
1302-445: The 1920s the rapid increase in turnover and profits was not due to increased prices but to higher sales volume. However White and Poppe's large factory was not yet at full capacity. Their principal product remained internal combustion engines. During 1929 new 6-cylinder engines were introduced. Experience had suggested operators would prefer the cheaper to buy and to maintain 4-cylinder engines. The new 6-cylinder engines were bending to
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#17327870905721364-545: The British cars shown were fitted with White and Poppe engines. The White and Poppe stand at the 1910 Olympia Motor Show was centred on their new 2.6-litre 16 hp (tax rating) four-cylinder engine. In operation it developed 24 hp when running at its normal speed of 1,150 revolutions per minute though of course the speed could be pushed up higher. Besides this engine there were ten other types of White and Poppe engine ranging from 4 hp (tax rating) single cylinder to
1426-665: The Coventry operation was disposed of by mid 1933. This business was established in 1899 by Coventry-born Alfred James White (1870-) and Norwegian Peter August Poppe (1870-1933). They had met in Austria at a weapons factory where Poppe was on secondment from his job in Norway with Kongsberg weapons factory . White was the son of a retired watchmaker, supplier of chronometers to The Admiralty and director of White and Poppe customers Swift and Singer . White's family provided most of
1488-644: The French la munition , for the material used for war. Ammunition and munition are often used interchangeably, although munition now usually refers to the actual weapons system with the ammunition required to operate it. In some languages other than English ammunition is still referred to as munition, such as: Dutch (" munitie "), French (" munitions "), German (" Munition "), Italian (" munizione ") and Portuguese (" munição "). Ammunition design has evolved throughout history as different weapons have been developed and different effects required. Historically, ammunition
1550-607: The UK, in World War II, by both the Engineering ROFs and private steel works / forging companies. It is believed that the empty brass cartridge cases for small arms were made at the Small Arms Ammunition Factories . The filling factories produced their own pyrotechnics, such as fuses and screening smokes, as many of these were sensitive materials. They were then filled or assembled directly into
1612-517: The War. However, only ROF Glascoed is still open and is now part of BAE Systems . Twenty World War II filling factories were planned, but only 16 were built. The two largest UK filling factories were: The other filling factories were: Ammunition Ammunition is the material fired, scattered, dropped, or detonated from any weapon or weapon system. Ammunition is both expendable weapons (e.g., bombs , missiles , grenades , land mines ) and
1674-570: The White and Poppe Coventry operation. By the end of 1924 the stock of war surplus commercial vehicles ceased to be a factor and the group's export sales were at an all-time record. The following year group profits trebled and the Guildford extensions paused in 1920 were resumed but the chairman made no other comment than confirming the wisdom of Dennis Brothers' purchase of White and Poppe. The extraordinary prosperity of Dennis Brothers' core business
1736-480: The White and Poppe carburettor was used by a large proportion of engine builders for motor boats, motorcars and aero engines. A variable jet provided a constant mixture. The petrol jet orifice and the air supply (throttle opening) were designed to cover the whole range of speeds. In August 1910 Autocar had noted that at the previous Olympia Motor Show one-third of the manufacturers exhibiting fitted White and Poppe carburettors as standard. In addition 12.25 per cent of
1798-630: The advent of explosive or non-recoverable ammunition, this was no longer possible and new supplies of ammunition would be needed. The weight of ammunition required, particularly for artillery shells, can be considerable, causing a need for extra time to replenish supplies. In modern times, there has been an increase in the standardization of many ammunition types between allies (e.g., the NATO Standardization Agreement ) that has allowed for shared ammunition types (e.g., 5.56×45mm NATO). As of 2013, lead-based ammunition production
1860-500: The ammunition has cleared the weapon. The propellant is the component of ammunition that is activated inside the weapon and provides the kinetic energy required to move the projectile from the weapon to the target. Before the use of gunpowder, this energy would have been produced mechanically by the weapons system (e.g., a catapult or crossbow); in modern times, it is usually a form of chemical energy that rapidly burns to create kinetic force, and an appropriate amount of chemical propellant
1922-405: The ammunition to defeat it has also changed. Naval ammunition is now designed to reach very high velocities (to improve its armor-piercing abilities) and may have specialized fuzes to defeat specific types of vessels. However, due to the extended ranges at which modern naval combat may occur, guided missiles have largely supplanted guns and shells. With every successive improvement in military arms,
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1984-436: The ammunition works. For example, a common artillery shell fuze can be set to "point detonation" (detonation when it hits a target), delay (detonate after it has hit and penetrated a target), time-delay (explode a specified time after firing or impact) and proximity (explode above or next to a target without hitting it, such as for airburst effects or anti-aircraft shells). These allow a single ammunition type to be altered to suit
2046-610: The buildings, equipment, and stores were sold off by public auctions in the early 1920s. The recruitment of workers for the factories was specifically aimed at women, and in general the workforce at the filling factories was 80 to 90% women. An advert in the papers in January 1917 was aimed at recruiting 8000 women workers for a munitions filling factory in North-West London (Willesden Employment Exchange). They had to be aged 20 to 40, and live not more than an hour away, though
2108-433: The capital for this new business and initially White looked after the accounts and called himself general manager. Poppe, an engineer, took charge of design and together they produced precision components for the automotive industry. Though Peter Poppe went to Rover in 1923 and a younger son left before the company closed its doors Alfred White and Poppe's eldest son Erling remained with the business until they had completed
2170-441: The chairman reported domestic sales remained constant but export sales had fallen considerably. A new six-cylinder Diesel engine had been designed and would shortly go under test. It would not be marketed until its performance equalled a petrol engine and to his knowledge no diesel engine did that at that time. Peter's son Erling Poppe (1898-1970) was now works manager at White and Poppe, Alfred White remained managing director. By
2232-503: The company supplied up to 15 customers and employed around 350 people by 1914. Market changes reduced the customer-base but Dennis Brothers , always an important customer, took much of their output and purchased the company in 1919. White and Poppe remained a distinct entity but during the Great Depression Dennis Brothers manufactured engines in their Surrey works and sourced diesel engines elsewhere. Thus
2294-415: The component parts of other weapons that create the effect on a target (e.g., bullets and warheads ). The purpose of ammunition is to project a force against a selected target to have an effect (usually, but not always, lethal). An example of ammunition is the firearm cartridge , which includes all components required to deliver the weapon effect in a single package. Until the 20th century, black powder
2356-474: The current fashion. A very valuable invention was patented which allowed the lifting of cylinder heads, decarbonising and valve grinding without dismantling the overhead camshaft. At the Annual General Meeting the chairman reported he had been asked to comment on the use of the crude oil engine and the chairman could "only assure him that we are fully alive to the possibilities". A year later
2418-616: The damage inflicted by one round. Anti-personnel shells are designed to fragment into many pieces and can affect a large area. Armor-piercing rounds are specially hardened to penetrate armor, while smoke ammunition covers an area with a fog that screens people from view. More generic ammunition (e.g., 5.56×45mm NATO ) can often be altered slightly to give it a more specific effect (e.g., tracer, incendiary), whilst larger explosive rounds can be altered by using different fuzes. The components of ammunition intended for rifles and munitions may be divided into these categories: The term fuze refers to
2480-411: The delivery of explosives. An ammunition dump is a military facility for the storage of live ammunition and explosives that will be distributed and used at a later date. Such a storage facility is extremely hazardous, with the potential for accidents when unloading, packing, and transferring the ammunition. In the event of a fire or explosion, the site and its surrounding area is immediately evacuated and
2542-429: The edge of the factory, and completed munitions left by rail. All the filling work was carried out within the large 'clean area' by a large, mainly female, workforce. People entering the clean area had to change clothes and leave behind anything that could strike a spark, not just matches and lighters but all metal, even hairclips - one male worker being fined £5 for being in possession of 2 nails that he had used to replace
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2604-404: The end of 1931 "a number" of crude oil ( Diesel ) engines were out on test fitted to heavy goods vehicles. The following year group profits fell by 41 per cent though substantial reserves allowed the dividend to be maintained. The chairman announced that in view of the proliferation of new models and their shorter life over which to recover their design development and production costs together with
2666-700: The environment as a result of artillery. Since 2010, this has eliminated over 2000 tons of lead in waste streams. Hunters are also encouraged to use monolithic bullets , which exclude any lead content. Unexploded ammunition can remain active for a very long time and poses a significant threat to both humans and the environment. White and Poppe White and Poppe Limited was a proprietary engine building and gearbox manufacturing business established in Coventry in 1899 by Alfred James White (1870-) and Norwegian Peter August Poppe (1870-1933). Many early motor vehicle manufacturers bought in their major components so
2728-574: The factory site, would be located: At the start of the War munition filling was carried out at Woolwich Arsenal, however it was soon realised that a massive increase in production of munitions was required. A 2015 study by Historic England looked into the 170 National Factories created in England by the Ministry of Munitions in the early part of WW1 (covering 174 locations), among these were the National Filling Factories, including
2790-414: The filling factories for filling into munitions, produced at other plants. High-explosives , such as TNT, had to be heated to melt them and the liquid was poured hot into heated shell cases. Care had to be taken to ensure that there were no voids in the poured explosive charge as this could lead to the shell detonating in the gun barrel during firing. Shells and gun cartridges were manufactured in
2852-408: The fitting of these products to passenger vehicles. White and Poppe ceased operations on 28 March 1933. Required plant and machinery of a combined weight of more than 2000 tons was moved unpacked from Coventry to Guildford by road. Each machine was picked up from its old position and deposited in its new position at Guildford under the guidance of Erling Poppe at Guildford. This unpacked move of plant
2914-699: The fuse-making business was such that there were severe difficulties in winding it up. Both Poppe and White were made directors of Dennis Brothers. In the recession of 1920 Poppe and another director were sent to USA to investigate their most modern manufacturing methods. At the end of 1921 the shareholders were told the Coventry factory had not been adequately employed and there was a search for new type of work away from motor transport. As late as 1923, governments, British and foreign, continued to hold large war-surplus fleets of motor transport vehicles still dampening demand for Dennis commercial vehicles and demand for White & Poppe engines. The parent company developed
2976-596: The incoming empty shells and the empty ammunition boxes. For safety purposes, munitions were segregated into different compatibility groups. A World War II filling factory would generally fill several different groups of munitions; and these groups would be located in different geographical areas within the danger area of the filling factory. The World War II groups were: In addition, a filling factory would have provision for limited proofing and testing of its munitions; and burning grounds for disposal of waste explosive material. Outside of this danger area, but still within
3038-424: The logistical chain to replenish the supply. A soldier may also carry a smaller amount of specialized ammunition for heavier weapons such as machine guns and mortars, spreading the burden for squad weapons over many people. Too little ammunition poses a threat to the mission, while too much limits the soldier's mobility also being a threat to the mission. A shell is a payload-carrying projectile which, as opposed to
3100-484: The munitions. They also would have sewn cotton bags for filling with primer composition or cordite charges. Filling factories had a large number of buildings. Buildings were needed on the various groups for filling of munitions. Explosives magazines were required by each group to store the incoming explosive materials and to store the outgoing filled shells or gun cartridges, usually packed in ammunition boxes. Storage buildings were also needed on each group to store
3162-466: The outbreak of war some kind of fusion of interests was being considered by the two boards. During the war, in addition to the engines for Dennis Brothers and Hallford , by the end of the war some 4,000 of them, White and Poppe also made fuses. More specifically Fuse 80 bodies and 18pdr shell sockets, rings, caps and base plugs. White and Poppe also managed the Ministry of Munitions No.10 (later 21) National Shell Filling & Fuse factory, part of which
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#17327870905723224-503: The potential saving in transport costs it had been decided to gradually remove the manufacture of engines from Coventry to Guildford. A new building for the purpose was being completed in Guildford and the change would be complete within twelve months. A few months later it was announced that Dennis would fit diesel engines made by Armstrong-Saurer Commercial Vehicles of Newcastle upon Tyne, Swiss Saurer products made under licence by Armstrong Whitworth . Dennis would have sole rights for
3286-435: The potential threat from enemy forces. A magazine is a place where a quantity of ammunition or other explosive material is stored temporarily prior to being used. The term may be used for a facility where large quantities of ammunition are stored, although this would normally be referred to as an ammunition dump. Magazines are typically located in the field for quick access when engaging the enemy. The ammunition storage area on
3348-425: The situation it is required for. There are many designs of a fuze, ranging from simple mechanical to complex radar and barometric systems. Fuzes are usually armed by the acceleration force of firing the projectile, and usually arm several meters after clearing the bore of the weapon. This helps to ensure the ammunition is safer to handle when loading into the weapon and reduces the chance of the detonator firing before
3410-477: The stored ammunition is left to detonate itself completely with limited attempts at firefighting from a safe distance. In large facilities, there may be a flooding system to automatically extinguish a fire or prevent an explosion. Typically, an ammunition dump will have a large buffer zone surrounding it, to avoid casualties in the event of an accident. There will also be perimeter security measures in place to prevent access by unauthorized personnel and to guard against
3472-437: The transfer of operations to Guildford. White's partner, Peter August Poppe was designer and chief engineer. He and White and Poppe Limited jointly held many patents for inventions made by him. Prior to World War I they served the booming motor industry with their engines in such high demand that at the 1906 British International Motor Exhibition 15 different firms displayed automobiles with White and Poppe engines. By 1910
3534-414: The weapon system for firing. With small arms, caseless ammunition can reduce the weight and cost of ammunition, and simplify the firing process for increased firing rate, but the maturing technology has functionality issues. The projectile is the part of the ammunition that leaves the weapon and has the effect on the target. This effect is usually either kinetic (e.g., as with a standard bullet) or through
3596-479: Was demonstrated the next year when instead of issuing yet more bonus shares to shareholders they repaid £250,000 capital to their shareholders because the company held too much cash (£467,000 at balance date) for its own requirements. The White and Poppe operation was self-financing and managed to keep pace with the expansion at Guildford. A new engine was brought to market during 1926 and proved "an unqualified success . . . with large numbers of satisfied users". During
3658-414: Was of relatively simple design and build (e.g., sling-shot, stones hurled by catapults), but as weapon designs developed (e.g., rifling ) and became more refined, the need for more specialized ammunition increased. Modern ammunition can vary significantly in quality but is usually manufactured to very high standards. For example, ammunition for hunting can be designed to expand inside a target, maximizing
3720-582: Was reported as widely as possible because Dennis Brothers wanted it to be "a testimonial to the efficiency of road transport". Dennis Brothers voluntarily liquidated White and Poppe, i.e. turned their assets into cash, on 28 March 1933. In the absence of any buyer they took ownership of the premises and eventually sold the Holbrook Lane Foleshill Coventry premises and plant and machinery not required in Guildford in May 1933. Much of
3782-464: Was switched at the end of 1916 from fuses to making aeroplane wings. By November 1918 they employed 13,500 people. Discussions resumed after the war and in April 1919 Dennis Brothers shareholders were asked to consent to the issue of new capital for Dennis Brothers to acquire W & P Later that year White and Poppe became a Dennis Brothers subsidiary but maintained its separate identity. The extent of
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#17327870905723844-472: Was the most common propellant used but has now been replaced in nearly all cases by modern compounds. Ammunition comes in a great range of sizes and types and is often designed to work only in specific weapons systems. However, there are internationally recognized standards for certain ammunition types (e.g., 5.56×45mm NATO ) that enable their use across different weapons and by different users. There are also specific types of ammunition that are designed to have
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