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87-572: An embodiment of the concept of the shadow government in conspiracy theory lore, the Syndicate is composed of covertly allied influential government officials and businessmen. The Syndicate, operating at the highest levels of power, concealed from the world a program by an unidentified extraterrestrial species to colonize and repopulate the planet, as well as their own plans and stake in that future, which they held to be inevitable. To carry out murder, cover-ups, sabotage and other wetworks projects,

174-459: A humoral-based graft rejection thought to be caused mainly by an ABO blood type mismatch, considered unavoidable due to the rarity of type O baboons. The graft was meant to be temporary, but unfortunately a suitable allograft replacement could not be found in time. While the procedure itself did not advance the progress on xenotransplantation, it did shed a light on the insufficient amount of organs for infants. The story made such an impact that

261-620: A case file on Billy Miles , that the agents had filed with the District Attorney 's office in Raymon County, Oregon. In 1998, the Syndicate learned of a rebel faction among the aliens that was fighting against their brethren and the colonization of Earth . The first incident of rebel violence on Earth occurred in Kazakhstan , where dozens of impending abductees were found incinerated. Marita Covarrubias investigated

348-497: A conference to discuss colonization in 1999. The Cigarette Smoking Man also continued working with his doctors, who were aware of the Syndicate's work to create a human-alien hybrid and attempted to continue this work. The Cigarette Smoking Man is also seen, in " Biogenesis ", meeting with a group of men, some in military uniforms, who are speaking about some sort of disaster and "containment" of it. Presumably they are speaking about colonization, and this assembly of men may be part of

435-726: A facility based in Blacksburg, Va., and a subsidiary of United Therapeutics . On 20 September 2023, surgeons at the University of Maryland Medical Center in Baltimore performed a heart transplant from a genetically modified pig to Lawrence Faucette, a patient with terminal heart disease who was ineligible for a traditional heart transplant. On 30 October 2023, Faucette died after showing signs of organ rejection. A worldwide shortage of organs for clinical implantation causes about 20–35% of patients who need replacement organs to die on

522-421: A few days due to bleeding. An alternate clotting disorder, thrombosis , may be initiated by preexisting antibodies that affect the protein C anticoagulant system. Due to this effect, porcine donors must be extensively screened before transplantation. Studies have also shown that some porcine transplant cells are able to induce human tissue factor expression, thus stimulating platelet and monocyte aggregation around

609-578: A few months later of unrelated causes, with no apparent rejection of the kidney. Meanwhile, in April 2024, Lisa Pisano became the second person to receive such a kidney transplant. Because of "unique challenges" related to a mechanical heart pump she received along with the kidney, her kidney had to be removed due to "insufficient blood flow" late in May. In January 2022, doctors led by cardiothoracic surgeon Bartley P. Griffith and Muhammad M. Mohiuddin at

696-465: A greater indirect xenogenic response. A proposed strategy to avoid cellular rejection is to induce donor non-responsiveness using hematopoietic chimerism. Donor stem cells are introduced into the bone marrow of the recipient, where they coexist with the recipient's stem cells. The bone marrow stem cells give rise to cells of all hematopoietic lineages, through the process of hematopoiesis . Lymphoid progenitor cells are created by this process and move to

783-445: A larger agenda that is hidden from the general public. Literature on the subject postulates the existence of a secret government which is the true power behind the apparent government. Examples of such literature include works by Dan Smoot , William Guy Carr , Jim Marrs , Carroll Quigley , Gary Allen , Alex Jones , Des Griffin , G. Edward Griffin , David Icke , and Michael A. Hoffman II . Some of these authors believe members of

870-434: A more readily available solution for the 70,000 patients per year who do not receive a human donation of the organ or tissue they need. Extensive research is required to determine whether animal organs can replace the physiological functions of human organs. Many issues include: Xenozoonosis, also known as zoonosis or xenosis, is the transmission of infectious agents between species via xenograft. Animal to human infection

957-427: A pig or baboon could be genetically altered with human genes to trick a patient's immune system into accepting it as a part of its own body. They have re-emerged because of the lack of organs available and the constant battle to keep immune systems from rejecting allotransplants. Xenotransplants are thus potentially a more effective alternative. Xenotransplantation of human tumor cells into immunocompromised mice

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1044-624: A project that they were told was concerned with biological warfare . Deep Throat claimed that it began after Roswell, when an ultrasecret conference of power brokers in the United States , the Soviet Union , United Kingdom , China , France , West Germany , and East Germany , signed a treaty that if an alien spacecraft crashed on Earth and the extraterrestrials survived, the country that held them would be responsible for their immediate extermination. The group that would become

1131-488: A quicker rate. (Pigs have a maximum life span of about 27 years. ) Disease transmission ( xenozoonosis ) and permanent alteration to the genetic code of animals are also causes for concern. Similarly to objections to animal testing , animal rights activists have also objected to xenotransplantation on ethical grounds. A few temporarily successful cases of xenotransplantation are published. Bioprosthetic artificial heart valves are generally pig or bovine -derived, but

1218-521: A schoolteacher. At autopsy, the chimpanzee kidneys appeared normal and showed no signs of acute or chronic rejection. An American infant girl known as " Baby Fae " with hypoplastic left heart syndrome was the first infant recipient of a xenotransplantation, when she received a baboon heart in 1984. The procedure was performed by Leonard Lee Bailey at Loma Linda University Medical Center in Loma Linda, California . Fae died 21 days later due to

1305-542: A secret from the general public. Cooper believed that aliens "manipulated and/or ruled the human race through various secret societies, religions, magic, witchcraft, and the occult", and that even the Illuminati were unknowingly being manipulated by them. During the American Revolution , Committees of Safety were different local committees of Patriots that formed a shadow government to take control of

1392-511: A transplanted organ, such as a pig kidney, is rapidly attacked and destroyed by the recipient's immune system. In the context of pig kidney xenotransplantation, this type of rejection is triggered by pre-existing antibodies in the recipient's blood that recognize and bind to antigens on the surface of the pig kidney cells. These antigens, which are foreign to the human immune system, include certain carbohydrates and proteins that are not present in human tissues. The binding of these antibodies activates

1479-414: A wide array of approaches are necessary to prevent acute vascular rejection, and include administering a synthetic thrombin inhibitor to modulate thrombogenesis, depletion of anti-galactose antibodies (XNAs) by techniques such as immunoadsorption, to prevent endothelial cell activation, and inhibiting activation of macrophages (stimulated by CD4 T cells) and NK cells (stimulated by the release of Il-2). Thus,

1566-406: Is a family of theories based on the notion that real and actual political power resides not only with publicly elected representatives but with private individuals who are exercising power behind the scenes, beyond the scrutiny of democratic institutions . According to this belief, the official elected government is subservient to the shadow government, which is the true executive power. Some of

1653-602: Is a research technique frequently used in oncology research. It is used to predict the sensitivity of the transplanted tumor to various cancer treatments; several companies offer this service, including the Jackson Laboratory . Human organs have been transplanted into animals as a powerful research technique for studying human biology without harming human patients. This technique has also been proposed as an alternative source of human organs for future transplantation into human patients. For example, researchers from

1740-427: Is a research technique frequently used in pre-clinical oncology research. Human xenotransplantation offers a potential treatment for end-stage organ failure , a significant health problem in parts of the industrialized world . It also raises many novel medical, legal and ethical issues. A continuing concern is that many animals, such as pigs , have a shorter lifespan than humans, meaning that their tissues age at

1827-403: Is changed, or there is a change in the expression of surface antigens on the graft. This allows the xenograft to up-regulate and express protective genes, which aid in resistance to injury, such as heme oxygenase-1 (an enzyme that catalyzes the degradation of heme). Rejection of the xenograft in hyperacute and acute vascular rejection is due to the response of the humoral immune system , since

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1914-728: Is decreased because of their increased phylogenetic distance from humans. Pigs have relatively short gestation periods, large litters, and are easy to breed, making them readily available. They are inexpensive and easy to maintain in pathogen-free facilities, and current gene editing tools are adapted to pigs to combat rejection and potential zoonoses . Pig organs are anatomically comparable in size, and new infectious agents are less likely since they have been in close contact with humans through domestication for many generations. Treatments sourced from pigs have proven to be successful such as porcine-derived insulin for patients with diabetes mellitus. Increasingly, genetically engineered pigs are becoming

2001-473: Is difficult since xenografts rarely survive past the initial acute rejection phases. Nonetheless, it is known that XNAs and the complement system are not primarily involved. Fibrosis in the xenograft occurs as a result of immune reactions, cytokines (which stimulate fibroblasts), or healing (following cellular necrosis in acute rejection). Perhaps the major cause of chronic rejection is arteriosclerosis . Lymphocytes, which were previously activated by antigens in

2088-439: Is further perpetuated as normally binding between regulatory proteins and their ligands aid in the control of coagulation and inflammatory responses. However, due to molecular incompatibilities between the molecules of the donor species and recipient (such as porcine major histocompatibility complex molecules and human natural killer cells), this may not occur. Due to its complexity, the use of immunosuppressive drugs along with

2175-591: Is normally rare, but has occurred in the past. An example of such is the avian influenza , when an influenza A virus was passed from birds to humans. Xenotransplantation may increase the chance of disease transmission for 3 reasons: (1) implantation breaches the physical barrier that normally helps to prevent disease transmission, (2) the recipient of the transplant will be severely immunosuppressed, and (3) human complement regulators (CD46, CD55, and CD59) expressed in transgenic pigs have been shown to serve as virus receptors, and may also help to protect viruses from attack by

2262-517: Is prevented. The process is much more complex than hyperacute rejection and is currently not completely understood. Acute vascular rejection requires de novo protein synthesis and is driven by interactions between the graft endothelial cells and host antibodies, macrophages, and platelets. The response is characterized by an inflammatory infiltrate of mostly macrophages and natural killer cells (with small numbers of T cells ), intravascular thrombosis, and fibrinoid necrosis of vessel walls. Binding of

2349-693: The Alien Bounty Hunters employed by the Colonists . The Men in Black were, however, not as reliable as the bounty hunters and though sometimes they were used initially it took the more capable Alien Bounty Hunters to complete difficult tasks. The Syndicate would use the bounty hunters only when absolutely necessary because of an increased risk of exposure. Shadow government (conspiracy) The shadow government , also referred to as cryptocracy , secret government , or invisible government ,

2436-616: The Crew Cut Man , and Quiet Willy . The leader of the Syndicate was a former German industrialist named Conrad Strughold, who had fled his home country and relocated to Tunisia . However, most of the Syndicate's meetings were held at a nondescript building located on West 46th Street (with parallels to the Century Association and Ivy League alumni clubs) in New York City , and did not involve Strughold, due to

2523-806: The Ganogen Research Institute transplanted human fetal kidneys into rats which demonstrated life supporting function and growth. Since they are the closest relatives to humans, non-human primates were first considered as a potential organ source for xenotransplantation to humans. Chimpanzees were originally considered the best option since their organs are of similar size, and they have good blood type compatibility with humans, which makes them potential candidates for xenotransfusions . However, since chimpanzees are listed as an endangered species , other potential donors were sought. Baboons are more readily available, but impractical as potential donors. Problems include their smaller body size,

2610-549: The IgM class, but also include IgG , and IgA . The epitope XNAs target is an α-linked galactose moiety, galactose-alpha-1,3-galactose (also called the α-Gal epitope), produced by the enzyme alpha- galactosyltransferase . Most non-primates contain this enzyme thus, this epitope is present on the organ epithelium and is perceived as a foreign antigen by primates, which lack the galactosyl transferase enzyme. In pig to primate xenotransplantation, XNAs recognize porcine glycoproteins of

2697-699: The Thirteen Colonies away from British royal officials. Xenotransplantation Xenotransplantation ( xenos- from the Greek meaning "foreign" or strange ), or heterologous transplant , is the transplantation of living cells , tissues or organs from one species to another. Such cells, tissues or organs are called xenografts or xenotransplants . It is contrasted with allotransplantation (from other individual of same species), syngeneic transplantation or isotransplantation (grafts transplanted between two genetically identical individuals of

Syndicate (The X-Files) - Misplaced Pages Continue

2784-534: The University of Maryland Medical Center and University of Maryland School of Medicine performed a heart transplant from a genetically modified pig to a terminally ill patient, David Bennett Sr., who was ineligible for a standard human heart transplant. The pig had undergone specific gene editing to remove enzymes responsible for producing sugar antigens that lead to hyperacute organ rejection in humans. The US medical regulator gave special dispensation to carry out

2871-591: The World Bank , International Monetary Fund , and the Bank for International Settlements . Also popularizing the idea was the hit US television show, The X-Files . Milton William Cooper claimed that the shadow government was in cooperation with extraterrestrial aliens . His 1991 book Behold a Pale Horse , influential among "UFO and militia circles", describes "the doings of the secret world government" and "a variety of other covert activities associated with

2958-562: The season finale , " The Truth " this unnamed organization shuts down the X-Files office at the Federal Bureau of Investigation . Mulder was left on the run until all his criminal charges were lifted in 2008 ( The X-Files: I Want to Believe ). In the eleventh season premiere " My Struggle III ", Mulder encountered Mr. Y and his accomplice Erika Price, who claimed to be former members of the Syndicate with their own agenda involving

3045-448: The 20th century, several subsequent efforts to use organs from lambs, pigs, and primates were published. Scientific interest in xenotransplantation declined when the immunological basis of the organ rejection process was described. The next waves of studies on the topic came with the discovery of immunosuppressive drugs . Even more studies followed Joseph Murray 's first successful renal transplantation in 1954 and scientists, facing

3132-695: The Cigarette Smoking Man's intentions, revealed in " Requiem ", to try to rebuild the conspiracy. In season eight , Doctor Lizzy Gill admitted to Mulder, Assistant Director Walter Skinner and Special agent John Doggett that, for the past ten years, she and her colleagues had been working to create a human-alien hybrid . According to her, the work had originally been financed by a group of government men but had continued after their deaths. Gill's colleagues, by this time, included Doctors Parenti, Lev and Duffy Haskell, but they all had been killed recently by super soldier Billy Miles . With

3219-551: The Hong Kong-based Prince of Wales Medical Institute) and C.S. James, performed the surgeries. Baruah claimed that Saikia had failed to respond to conventional surgery, and that the patient and his family had consented to the procedure. All three involved in the surgery were arrested on January 9, 1997, for the alleged violation of the Transplantation of Human Organs and Tissues Act of 1994 . Baruah

3306-675: The Illuminati's declaration of war upon the people of America". Cooper claimed to have seen secret documents while in the Navy describing governmental dealings with aliens. Cooper linked the Illuminati with his beliefs that extraterrestrials were secretly involved with the US government, but later retracted these claims. He accused Dwight D. Eisenhower of negotiating a treaty with extraterrestrials in 1954, then establishing an inner circle of Illuminati to manage relations with them and keep their presence

3393-487: The NYU Langone Transplant Institute completed a transplant of a genetically modified pig kidney (along with the pig's thymus gland underneath it) into a patient declared brain dead but maintained on a respirator. The patient had previously consented to be an organ donor, but his tissues were not considered suitable for transplant. The kidney came from an animal with a knocked-out gene for

3480-479: The Syndicate eliminated, the power vacuum was eventually filled in season nine by a new government-like organization. This organization included members such as the Toothpick Man , Gene Crane, and Knowle Rohrer , among others. All known members revealed to viewers in the series were super soldiers , men with superhuman abilities - with the exception of Alex Krycek , who was killed in " Existence ". During

3567-694: The Syndicate existed as early as 1952 as a secret group within the Department of State . Their activities included experimenting with xenotransplantation , relocating ex-Nazi scientists to the United States after World War II, and covering up the black oil discovered in the Piper Maru in 1953. The members of the Syndicate within the State Department officially broke off ties with the United States government in 1973. However, some of

Syndicate (The X-Files) - Misplaced Pages Continue

3654-480: The Syndicate had use of a vast warehouse in The Pentagon where artifacts constituting evidence of alien existence were stored. The Cigarette Smoking Man added an implant , recovered by Mulder and Scully on their first case together, to the items kept in this storage facility. As Mulder and Scully learned, other efforts to erase their findings were apparently made, including the disappearance of paperwork, such as

3741-507: The Syndicate used an unknown number of henchmen commonly referred to as the Men in Black . The Men in Black were merciless protectors of the conspiracy whose true names, like the members of the Syndicate, were rarely, if ever, known. Many worked ostensibly for the U.S. Defense Department , Central Intelligence Agency , National Security Agency , along with various other government agencies. Prominent Men in Black agents included X , Alex Krycek ,

3828-495: The aliens as a slave race after colonization . To allow the Syndicate to develop the hybrid, they were provided an alien fetus from which to extract DNA and begin research. However, the aliens demanded in exchange samples of human DNA. Members of the Syndicate turned over their loved ones to the aliens as part of the exchange. The Cigarette Smoking Man handed over his wife, Cassandra Spender , and William Mulder reluctantly surrendered his daughter, Samantha . By March 22, 1993,

3915-479: The animal, may also pose risks. Of particular concern are PERVS (porcine endogenous retroviruses), vertically transmitted microbes that embed in swine genomes. The risks with xenosis are twofold, as not only could the individual become infected, but a novel infection could initiate an epidemic in the human population. Because of this risk, the FDA has suggested any recipients of xenotransplants shall be closely monitored for

4002-472: The cells are killed by glutaraldehyde treatment before insertion, therefore technically not fulfilling the WHO definition of xenotransplantation of being live cells. The first serious attempts at xenotransplantation (then called heterotransplantation) appeared in the scientific literature in 1905, when slices of rabbit kidney were transplanted into a child with chronic kidney disease . In the first two decades of

4089-521: The colonization of space and simulated reality. The Men in Black is the unofficial name of a group of enforcers employed by the Syndicate to take care of the dirty work of the conspiracy. Most of them were ex-military, highly trained and loyal hitmen, who worked as a front in government agencies such as the Federal Bureau of Investigation , Department of Defense , and the National Security Agency . The Men in Black are analogous to

4176-410: The complement system, leading to a cascade of events that cause widespread clotting and inflammation in the transplanted organ's blood vessels. As a result, the kidney quickly becomes ischemic (lacking adequate blood flow) and undergoes acute damage, often resulting in the organ's immediate loss. Hyperacute rejection can severely affect the recipient’s body by leading to the rapid and complete failure of

4263-515: The complement system. Examples of viruses carried by pigs include porcine herpesvirus , rotavirus , parvovirus , and circovirus . Porcine herpesviruses and rotaviruses can be eliminated from the donor pool by screening, however others (such as parvovirus and circovirus) may contaminate food and footwear then re-infect the herd. Thus, pigs to be used as organ donors must be housed under strict regulations and screened regularly for microbes and pathogens. Unknown viruses, as well as those not harmful in

4350-660: The crisis of infant organ shortage improved for that time. The first transplant of a non-genetically modified pig's heart, lungs and kidneys into a human was performed in Sonapur, Assam , in India in mid-December 1996, and was announced in January 1997. The recipient was Purno Saikia, a 32-year-old terminally-ill man; he died of multiple infections shortly after the operation. The Indian cardiothoracic surgeon Dhani Ram Baruah and two of his associates, Jonathan Ho Kei-shing (of

4437-605: The ethical questions of organ donation for the first time, accelerated their effort in looking for alternatives to human organs. In 1963, doctors at Tulane University attempted chimpanzee -to-human renal transplantations in six people who were near death; after this and several subsequent unsuccessful attempts to use primates as organ donors and the development of a working cadaver organ procuring program, interest in xenotransplantation for kidney failure dissipated. Out of 13 such transplants performed by Keith Reemtsma , one kidney recipient lived for nine months, returning to work as

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4524-454: The fact that his entry into the United States would potentially draw too much attention because of his ties to Nazi Germany . Meetings with Strughold were instead held in London . A possible front for the group, evidenced in the episode " Redux II ", was a biotechnology firm called Roush. Reportedly, series creator Chris Carter named the company after USA Today TV critic Matt Roush, who

4611-583: The groups proposed by these theories as constituting the shadow government include central banks , Freemasons , communists , Nazis , the Rothschilds , intelligence agencies , think tanks , organized Jewry , the Vatican , Jesuits , or Catholics in general, as well as secret societies , moneyed interests , extraterrestrials and globalist elites and supranational organizations who seek to manipulate policy in their own interest or in order to serve

4698-431: The implementation". In September 2021, surgeons led by Robert Montgomery performed the first genetically engineered pig kidney xenotransplant to a brain-dead human at NYU Langone Health with no sign of immediate rejection (partly because the pig thymus gland was transplanted as well). The kidney was procured from a pig with only a single gene modification: the removal of alpha-gal . In July 2023, surgeons from

4785-411: The incident and quickly had it covered up. Shortly thereafter, many more abductees were summoned to Skyland Mountain via their metallic tags. Again, the group was attacked and incinerated by the alien rebels. It was at this time that the rebels were more clearly identified as being faceless —with their facial orifices sewn shut to prevent black oil infection—a telltale characteristic that set them apart as

4872-437: The infrequency of blood group O (the universal donor), their long gestation period, and their typically small number of offspring. In addition, a major problem with the use of nonhuman primates is the increased risk of disease transmission, since they are so closely related to humans. Pigs ( Sus scrofa domesticus ) are currently thought to be the best candidates for organ donation. The risk of cross-species disease transmission

4959-440: The integrin family. The binding of XNAs initiate complement activation through the classical complement pathway . Complement activation causes a cascade of events leading to: destruction of endothelial cells, platelet degranulation, inflammation, coagulation, fibrin deposition, and hemorrhage. The result is thrombosis and necrosis of the xenograft. Hyperacute rejection is a severe, immediate immune response that occurs when

5046-412: The many obstacles arising from the response of the recipient's immune system . Xenozoonoses are one of the biggest threats to rejections, as they are xenogeneic infections. The introduction of these microorganisms are a big issue that lead to the fatal infections and then rejection of the organs. This response, which is generally more extreme than in allotransplantations, ultimately results in rejection of

5133-521: The members continued to work within the State Department. On October 13, the Syndicate formally forged their alliance with the alien colonists at El Rico Air Force Base. The Cigarette Smoking Man personally presented a folded American flag to the aliens, symbolizing their surrender to a superior intergalactic force. The Syndicate was also commencing their work on the Project, which would see an immense effort in creating an alien/ human hybrid to serve

5220-486: The norm, which raises moral qualms, but also increases the success rate of the transplant. Current experiments in xenotransplantation most often use pigs as the donor, and baboons as human models. In 2020 the U.S. Food and Drug Administration approved a genetic modification of pigs so they do not produce alpha-gal sugars. Pig organs have been used for kidney and heart transplants into humans. To date, no xenotransplantation trials have been entirely successful due to

5307-449: The patient for another month, pending approval by ethics board and his family. In March 2024, Richard Slayman , a patient whose transplanted human kidney had failed, received a genetically engineered pig kidney xenotransplant from surgeons at Massachusetts General Hospital . This kidney has 69 genomic edits (3 gene knockout, 7 human gene insertion and 59 copies of the porcine retrovirus knockout) made by eGenesis, Inc. Mr. Slayman died

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5394-512: The power to suspend constitutional government upon declaration of a national emergency. The Syndicate was formed at the end of World War II , after the Roswell incident 1947, when German scientists were brought to the United States to work on developing an alien-human hybrid . Alvin Kurtzweil recounted that when he and Bill Mulder were young men in the military, they were recruited for

5481-569: The previously mentioned XNAs to the donor endothelium leads to the activation of host macrophages as well as the endothelium itself. The endothelium activation is considered type II since gene induction and protein synthesis are involved. The binding of XNAs ultimately leads to the development of a procoagulant state, the secretion of inflammatory cytokines and chemokines , as well as expression of leukocyte adhesion molecules such as E-selectin , intercellular adhesion molecule-1 ( ICAM-1 ), and vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 ( VCAM-1 ). This response

5568-468: The procedure under compassionate use criteria. The recipient died two months after the transplantation. In June and July 2022, surgeons at NYU Langone Health performed two genetically modified pig heart transplants into recently deceased humans. The hearts were from pigs that had the identical 10 genetic modifications used in the University of Maryland Medical Center heart xenotransplantation in January 2022. All three hearts came from Revivicor, Inc.,

5655-415: The production of alpha gal sugars, which has been implicated in immune response to mammalian tissue. In order to ensure that renal function was only supported by the pig kidney, the team removed both of the patient's kidneys. The team has reported that the kidney has maintained optimal functioning for over a month, as evidenced by routine testing of creatinine and weekly biopsies. The team plans to monitor

5742-554: The production of interleukin 2 (IL-2). Indirect xenorecognition involves the presentation of antigens from the xenograft by recipient antigen presenting cells to CD4 T cells. Antigens of phagocytosed graft cells can also be presented by the host's class I MHC molecules to CD8 T cells. The strength of cellular rejection in xenografts remains uncertain, however, it is expected to be stronger than in allografts due to differences in peptides among different animals. This leads to more antigens potentially recognized as foreign, thus eliciting

5829-446: The rebel force. The following year, the rebels made their most daring—and most destructive—move. Outside of Washington, D.C. , they attacked a train car, wherein a group of Syndicate doctors led by Eugene Openshaw were experimenting on Cassandra Spender —the first successful alien-human hybrid . The rebels incinerated the doctors, but left Cassandra alive so that the Project would be revealed and subsequently destroyed. Indeed, one of

5916-466: The rebels killed the Second Elder and assumed his position at meetings of the Syndicate; however, The Smoking Man realized this and had the group cease meeting together. The Smoking Man contacted his son, Jeffrey Spender , and charged him with killing the rebel posing as the Second Elder . However, Spender failed, and Alex Krycek successfully completed the assassination. Spender then realized

6003-493: The remainder of their life, and quarantined if they show signs of xenosis. Baboons and pigs carry myriad transmittable agents that are harmless in their natural host, but extremely toxic and deadly in humans. HIV is an example of a disease believed to have jumped from monkeys to humans. Researchers also do not know if an outbreak of infectious diseases could occur and if they could contain the outbreak even though they have measures for control. Another obstacle facing xenotransplants

6090-597: The removal of the rejected kidney and the need to explore alternative treatment options, such as returning to dialysis or seeking another transplant source. Yang S, Zhang M, Wei H, Zhang B, Peng J, Shang P, Sun S. Since hyperacute rejection presents such a barrier to the success of xenografts, several strategies to overcome it are under investigation: Interruption of the complement cascade Transgenic organs (Genetically engineered pigs) Also known as delayed xenoactive rejection, this type of rejection occurs in discordant xenografts within 2 to 3 days, if hyperacute rejection

6177-498: The response is elicited by the XNAs. Cellular rejection is based on cellular immunity , and is mediated by natural killer cells that accumulate in and damage the xenograft and T-lymphocytes which are activated by MHC molecules through both direct and indirect xenorecognition. In direct xenorecognition, antigen presenting cells from the xenograft present peptides to recipient CD4 T cells via xenogeneic MHC class II molecules, resulting in

6264-556: The resulting reduction in the highly immunogenic αGal epitope has resulted in the reduction of the occurrence of hyperacute rejection, but has not eliminated other barriers to xenotransplantation such as dysregulated coagulation, also known as coagulopathy . Different organ xenotransplants result in different responses in clotting. For example, kidney transplants result in a higher degree of coagulopathy , or impaired clotting, than cardiac transplants, whereas liver xenografts result in severe thrombocytopenia , causing recipient death within

6351-427: The role of MHC molecules and T cell responses in activation would have to be reassessed for each species combo. If hyperacute and acute vascular rejection are avoided accommodation is possible, which is the survival of the xenograft despite the presence of circulating XNAs. The graft is given a break from humoral rejection when the complement cascade is interrupted, circulating antibodies are removed, or their function

6438-490: The same species) and autotransplantation (from one part of the body to another in the same person). Xenotransplantation is an artificial method of creating an animal- human chimera , that is, a human with a subset of animal cells. In contrast, an individual where each cell contains genetic material from a human and an animal is called a human–animal hybrid . Patient derived xenografts are created by xenotransplantation of human tumor cells into immunocompromised mice, and

6525-472: The scientific community because he never got his findings scientifically peer-reviewed . Past complaints of ethics violations during surgeries in Hong Kong by Baruah and Ho had occurred in 1992, when they had implanted heart valves, developed by Baruah, made of animal tissue. A year later, six patients died. The Asian Medical News reported that "grave concerns" were expressed "over the procedure and ethics of

6612-557: The scope of the conspiracy being carried out by his father, and he pledged his support to Fox Mulder . Having their hand forced by the rebels, the Syndicate retrieved Cassandra Spender and prepared to present her to the aliens so that colonization could begin. However, the rebels instead appeared and incinerated the entire group of high-ranking Syndicate members, meaning the destruction of the Syndicate. Later in 1999, Scully asked Mulder what more he could possibly hope to do or to find, after having done and uncovered so much, such as exposing

6699-862: The secret government may represent or be agents for groups such as the Council on Foreign Relations , United Nations , the Royal Institute for International Affairs , Tavistock Institute , the Trilateral Commission , the Club of Rome , the Bilderberg Group , the World Health Organization , George Soros , and the Koch Brothers , in co-operation with international banks and financial institutions such as

6786-490: The secrets of a conspiracy of men who had been doing human experiments but were all now dead. Mulder's reply was that he still hoped to find his sister. Later on, Mulder dreamt of the Syndicate, in which an illusory version of the Cigarette Smoking Man claimed that his group had "made entire cultures disappear". In reality, the Cigarette Smoking Man continued working on the Project with a group of men who held

6873-447: The thymus where negative selection eliminates T cells found to be reactive to self. The existence of donor stem cells in the recipient's bone marrow causes donor reactive T cells to be considered self-reactive and undergo apoptosis . Chronic rejection is slow and progressive, and usually occurs in transplants that survive the initial rejection phases. Scientists are still unclear how chronic rejection exactly works, research in this area

6960-462: The time of the transplant. It is mediated by the binding of XNAs (xenoreactive natural antibodies) to the donor endothelium, causing activation of the human complement system , which results in endothelial damage, inflammation, thrombosis and necrosis of the transplant. XNAs are first produced and begin circulating in the blood in neonates, after colonization of the bowel by bacteria with galactose moieties on their cell walls. Most of these antibodies are

7047-488: The transplanted kidney. This failure not only undermines the purpose of the transplant, which is to restore kidney function, but also poses serious health risks to the recipient. The sudden loss of kidney function can result in the accumulation of waste products and fluids in the body, causing symptoms such as swelling, electrolyte imbalances, and potential life-threatening complications. Furthermore, hyperacute rejection necessitates immediate medical intervention, often leading to

7134-546: The vessel wall of the graft, activate macrophages to secrete smooth muscle growth factors. This results in a build up of smooth muscle cells on the vessel walls, causing the hardening and narrowing of vessels within the graft. Chronic rejection leads to pathologic changes of the organ, and is why transplants must be replaced after so many years. It is also anticipated that chronic rejection will be more aggressive in xenotransplants as opposed to allotransplants. Successful efforts have been made to create knockout mice without α1,3GT;

7221-561: The waiting list. Certain procedures, some of which are being investigated in early clinical trials, aim to use cells or tissues from other species to treat life-threatening and debilitating illnesses such as cancer , diabetes , liver failure and Parkinson's disease . If vitrification can be perfected, it could allow for long-term storage of xenogenic cells, tissues and organs so that they would be more readily available for transplant. Xenotransplants could save thousands of patients waiting for donated organs. The animal organ, probably from

7308-518: The xenograft, and can in some cases result in the immediate death of the recipient. There are several types of rejection organ xenografts are faced with, these include hyperacute rejection, acute vascular rejection, cellular rejection, and chronic rejection. A rapid, violent, and hyperacute response comes as a result of antibodies present in the host organism. These antibodies are known as xenoreactive natural antibodies (XNAs). This rapid and violent type of rejection occurs within minutes to hours from

7395-422: The xenotransplanted organ, causing severe clotting. Additionally, spontaneous platelet accumulation may be caused by contact with pig von Willebrand factor. Just as the α1,3G epitope is a major problem in xenotransplantation, so too is dysregulated coagulation a cause of concern. Transgenic pigs that can control for variable coagulant activity based on the specific organ transplanted would make xenotransplantation

7482-549: Was an influential early champion of The X-Files . Roush's facilities were used in some experiments involving the virus, shown in the sixth season premiere " The Beginning ". Also, according to Alvin Kurtzweil , when the alien takeover was set to commence in December 2012, the Syndicate would have seized control of the United States via the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), which had

7569-521: Was dismissed in medical circles as a "mad scientist" and the procedure was dubbed a "hoax". Baruah himself signed a statement saying he had done no transplant, but then alleged that the confession was forced from him. They were found guilty of unethical procedure and culpable homicide and imprisoned for 40 days. Dhani Ram Baruah's surgical institute was also found to be without necessary registration. Critics said Dhani Bam Baruah's claims and medical procedures were neither taken seriously nor accepted by

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