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112-487: The volcano contains a large caldera , 4 by 5 miles (6.4 km × 8.0 km) in diameter, known as the Newberry Caldera . Within the caldera are two lakes: Paulina Lake and East Lake . The volcano and its vicinity include many pyroclastic cones , lava flows and lava domes ; Newberry has more than 400 vents, the most of any volcano in the contiguous United States. Glaciers may have once been present at

224-472: A Snake Indian chief who headed raiding parties against whites during the 1850s and 1860s before he was pursued and shot by settler Howard Maupin . Near the end of the 19th century, the Lava River Cave was used by the hunter Leander Dillman to store perishable foods. The name Mount Newberry was proposed by Israel Russell, who visited the area in 1903, though the name did not come into use. Instead, it

336-517: A pit crater . Dacite and rhyodacite domes can be found on the middle and upper flanks, and Newberry also features twenty rhyolitic lava domes and lava flows among its western, eastern, and southern flanks. These include East Butte and China Hat at the eastern base of the volcano, which date to 850,000 and 780,000 years ago, and therefore predate Newberry. The McKay Butte, found on the volcano's western side, formed 580,000 years ago. Other Holocene eruptions have produced rhyolite lava that remained close to

448-477: A "very high" threat level. Hot springs within the caldera remain active, and small earthquakes have occurred within recent local history. Any future eruptions would likely show similar characteristics to eruptions from the past 15,000 years, ranging from effusive production of lava flows to explosive eruptions ejecting pumice and ash. If future lava flows from Newberry Volcano are of comparable size to its late Pleistocene eruptions, they would bury settlements throughout

560-409: A caldera, possibly an ash-flow caldera. The volcanic activity of Mars is concentrated in two major provinces: Tharsis and Elysium . Each province contains a series of giant shield volcanoes that are similar to what we see on Earth and likely are the result of mantle hot spots . The surfaces are dominated by lava flows, and all have one or more collapse calderas. Mars has the tallest volcano in

672-475: A chamber, greatly diminishing its capacity to support its own roof, and any substrate or rock resting above. The ground surface then collapses into the emptied or partially emptied magma chamber, leaving a large depression at the surface (from one to dozens of kilometers in diameter). Although sometimes described as a crater , the feature is actually a type of sinkhole , as it is formed through subsidence and collapse rather than an explosion or impact. Compared to

784-400: A diameter of 290 km (180 mi). The average caldera diameter on Mars is 48 km (30 mi), smaller than Venus. Calderas on Earth are the smallest of all planetary bodies and vary from 1.6–80 km (1–50 mi) as a maximum. The Moon has an outer shell of low-density crystalline rock that is a few hundred kilometers thick, which formed due to a rapid creation. The craters of

896-404: A fissure with a length of 1.5 miles (2.4 km), yielding basaltic and andesitic lava flows. Strombolian eruptions (which eject incandescent cinder, lapilli , and lava bombs) produced tephra that formed Lava Butte, a cinder cone near Newberry with a height of 500 feet (150 m), a base diameter of 2,300 feet (700 m), and a crater depth of 160 feet (50 m). With a lopsided shape where

1008-443: A groundmass of finely-divided clayey material sometimes called glacial flour . Lateral moraines are those formed at the side of the ice flow, and terminal moraines are those formed at the foot, marking the maximum advance of the glacier. Other types of moraine include ground moraines ( till -covered areas forming sheets on flat or irregular topography ) and medial moraines (moraines formed where two glaciers meet). The word moraine

1120-463: A location to the east of the Big Obsidian flow, finding temperatures of 509 °F (265 °C) under the surface there. An energy company drilled two holes with a depth of 10,000 feet (3,000 m) in 1995 and 1996, but they were unable to find fluids, so they lacked a mechanism to drive turbines and opted to end the project at Newberry. According to many scientists, Newberry Volcano represents

1232-471: A magma chamber whose magma is rich in silica . Silica-rich magma has a high viscosity , and therefore does not flow easily like basalt . The magma typically also contains a large amount of dissolved gases, up to 7 wt% for the most silica-rich magmas. When the magma approaches the surface of the Earth, the drop in confining pressure causes the trapped gases to rapidly bubble out of the magma, fragmenting

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1344-427: A major explosive eruption . It formed the crater lakes and Paulina Peak—which is the highest point on the volcano, at 7,989 feet (2,435 m). As a result of its caldera-forming eruption, Newberry has a horizontal profile, which is typical of a shield volcano . However, it is also considered a composite volcano, made up of a matrix of lava flows and pyroclastic deposits. Unlike more typical composite volcanoes in

1456-490: A narrow isthmus , which is composed of rhyolite lava. East Lake has a smaller area of 1,050 acres (4.2 km) with a maximum depth of 180 feet (55 m). The lakes have historically flooded channels surrounding the volcano. A large flood between 4,000 and 2,300 years ago released up to 12,000 acre feet (0.0148 km) in volume from Paulina Lake, filling the valley floor above the Paulina Prairie, which surrounds

1568-601: A noticeable drop in temperature around the world. Large calderas may have even greater effects. The ecological effects of the eruption of a large caldera can be seen in the record of the Lake Toba eruption in Indonesia . At some points in geological time , rhyolitic calderas have appeared in distinct clusters. The remnants of such clusters may be found in places such as the Eocene Rum Complex of Scotland,

1680-768: A paved, narrow, and steep one-mile trail. The area was designated as the Lava Cast Forest Geological Area in April 1942 by the United States Forest Service, which included 5,120 acres (20.7 km) of land in the region. Known to the American public since 1928, by the mid-1940s the Lava Cast Forest was visited by thousands of tourists each year. In the mid-1970s, the region had 150,000 tourist visitors annually, with

1792-527: A permit from the visitor center, and the center's parking area remains open year-round. The area offers eight campgrounds operated by the United States Forest Service. The last lava flow from Newberry during the Pleistocene formed the Lava River Cave , 12 miles (19 km) to the south of Bend. This feature is the state's longest continuous lava tube, which can be hiked for more than one mile to

1904-452: A series of transverse ridges running across a valley behind a terminal moraine. They form perpendicular to the lateral moraines that they reside between and are composed of unconsolidated debris deposited by the glacier. They are created during temporary halts in a glacier's retreat. In permafrost areas an advancing glacier may push up thick layers of frozen sediments at its front. An arctic push moraine will then be formed. A medial moraine

2016-502: A single moraine, and most moraines record a continuum of processes. Reworking of moraines may lead to the formation of placer deposits of gold as is the case of southernmost Chile . Moraines can be classified either by origin, location with respect to a glacier or former glacier, or by shape. The first approach is suitable for moraines associated with contemporary glaciers—but more difficult to apply to old moraines , which are defined by their particular morphology, since their origin

2128-670: A somewhat dry climate due to its location in the rain shadow of the Cascade Range. Climate data for the Newberry National Volcanic Monument are collected at the Lava Butte cinder cone, which had an average annual precipitation of 17.9 inches (455 mm) from 2002 to 2012. Summer temperatures average from 73 to 82 °F (23 to 28 °C), dipping to average minimum and maximum temperatures of −1.8 to 68.9 °F (−18.8 to 20.5 °C) during

2240-513: A threat to life. Still considered an active volcano, it could erupt and produce lava flows, pyroclastic flows , lahars (volcanically induced mudslides, landslides, and debris flows), ashfall, earthquakes, avalanches, and floods. To track this threat, the volcano and its surroundings are closely monitored with sensors by the United States Geological Survey . The center of Newberry Volcano lies 20 miles (32 km) to

2352-482: A vent on the cone's southern flank. An eruption from a fissure zone at East Lake, 3,500 years ago, yielded tephra and formed the East Lake obsidian lava flows. The volcano underwent its most recent eruptions 1,300 years ago, producing the Big Obsidian flow. A silicic deposit, it is made up of rhyolite and features a number of lava blocks . Although it is frequently cited as the largest Holocene obsidian formation in

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2464-404: Is unstratified and unsorted debris ranging in size from silt -sized glacial flour to large boulders. The individual rock fragments are typically sub-angular to rounded in shape. Moraines may be found on the glacier's surface or deposited as piles or sheets of debris where the glacier has melted. Moraines may form through a number of processes, depending on the characteristics of sediment,

2576-640: Is a ridge of moraine that runs down the center of a valley floor. It forms when two glaciers meet and the debris on the edges of the adjacent valley sides join and are carried on top of the enlarged glacier. As the glacier melts or retreats, the debris is deposited and a ridge down the middle of the valley floor is created. The Kaskawulsh Glacier in the Kluane National Park , Yukon , has a ridge of medial moraine 1 km wide. Supraglacial moraines are created by debris accumulated on top of glacial ice. This debris can accumulate due to ice flow toward

2688-426: Is accumulated at the base of the ice as lodgment till with a thin and discontinuous upper layer of supraglacial till deposited as the glacier retreats. It typically is found in the areas between end moraines. Rogen moraines or ribbed moraines are a type of basal moraines that form a series of ribs perpendicular to the ice flow in an ice sheet . The depressions between the ribs are sometimes filled with water, making

2800-399: Is any accumulation of unconsolidated debris ( regolith and rock ), sometimes referred to as glacial till , that occurs in both currently and formerly glaciated regions, and that has been previously carried along by a glacier or ice sheet. It may consist of partly rounded particles ranging in size from boulders (in which case it is often referred to as boulder clay) down to gravel and sand, in

2912-547: Is borrowed from French moraine [mɔ.ʁɛn] , which in turn is derived from the Savoyard Italian morena ('mound of earth'). Morena in this case was derived from Provençal morre ('snout'), itself from Vulgar Latin * murrum ('rounded object'). The term was introduced into geology by Horace Bénédict de Saussure in 1779. Moraines are landforms composed of glacial till deposited primarily by glacial ice. Glacial till, in turn,

3024-440: Is cut by several fault scarps , small step offsets on the ground surface where one side of a fault has moved vertically with respect to the other. At the center of the isthmus that separates Newberry Volcano's two crater lakes is the central volcanic cone , named Central Pumice cone, which reaches 700 feet (210 m) above East Lake. With a broad, flat top, it formed during an explosive eruption about 7,000 years ago, and sits in

3136-441: Is debated. Some moraine types are known only from ancient glaciers, while medial moraines of valley glaciers are poorly preserved and difficult to distinguish after the retreat or melting of the glacier. Lateral moraines are parallel ridges of debris deposited along the sides of a glacier. The unconsolidated debris can be deposited on top of the glacier by frost shattering of the valley walls or from tributary streams flowing into

3248-405: Is ejected, the emptied chamber is unable to support the weight of the volcanic edifice above it. A roughly circular fracture , the "ring fault", develops around the edge of the chamber. Ring fractures serve as feeders for fault intrusions which are also known as ring dikes . Secondary volcanic vents may form above the ring fracture. As the magma chamber empties, the center of the volcano within

3360-550: Is heated by solid flexing due to the tidal influence of Jupiter and Io's orbital resonance with neighboring large moons Europa and Ganymede , which keep its orbit slightly eccentric . Unlike any of the planets mentioned, Io is continuously volcanically active. For example, the NASA Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 spacecraft detected nine erupting volcanoes while passing Io in 1979. Io has many calderas with diameters tens of kilometers across. Moraine A moraine

3472-540: Is relatively young (1.25 million years old) and unusually well preserved, and it remains one of the best studied examples of a resurgent caldera. The ash flow tuffs of the Valles caldera, such as the Bandelier Tuff , were among the first to be thoroughly characterized. About 74,000 years ago, this Indonesian volcano released about 2,800 cubic kilometres (670 cu mi) dense-rock equivalent of ejecta. This

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3584-568: The Central Oregon region. They would also likely destroy segments of U.S. Route 97 , disabling transportation in the area, in addition to likely ruining gas pipelines and power lines that extend electricity to California, both of which would be accompanied by serious economic consequences. Flank lava flows, which would likely be basaltic in origin, might form lava fountains that could scatter cinders and lava for several thousand meters, building cinder cones or initiating forest fires . While

3696-501: The Holocene , the last eruption taking place 1,300 years ago. Unlike other shield-shaped volcanoes, which often erupt basaltic lavas only, Newberry Volcano has also erupted andesitic and rhyolitic lavas. A popular destination for hiking, fishing, boating, and other recreational activities, the volcano lies within 19 miles (31 km) of 16,400 people and within 62 miles (100 km) of nearly 200,000 people, and it continues to pose

3808-508: The San Juan Mountains of Colorado , where the 5,000 cubic kilometres (1,200 cu mi) Fish Canyon Tuff was blasted out in eruptions about 27.8 million years ago. The caldera produced by such eruptions is typically filled in with tuff, rhyolite , and other igneous rocks . The caldera is surrounded by an outflow sheet of ash flow tuff (also called an ash flow sheet ). If magma continues to be injected into

3920-466: The Three Sisters volcanoes. Caldera A caldera ( / k ɔː l ˈ d ɛr ə , k æ l -/ kawl- DERR -ə, kal- ) is a large cauldron -like hollow that forms shortly after the emptying of a magma chamber in a volcanic eruption . An eruption that ejects large volumes of magma over a short period of time can cause significant detriment to the structural integrity of such

4032-882: The Basin and Range Province have all been proposed as possible mechanisms. At Newberry, the subducting plate has a depth that is 12 to 31 miles (20 to 50 km) shallower than elsewhere in the major crest of the Cascades, accounting for its unique magmas. Newberry Volcano is likely fed by a magma chamber 1.9 to 3.1 miles (3 to 5 km) under the large, cauldron-like caldera at its summit. This caldera has dimensions of 4.0 by 5.0 miles (6.5 by 8 km) and formed about 75,000 years ago. Newberry Volcano first formed about 600,000 years ago and has since been built up by several thousand eruptions. About 500,000 years ago, Mount Newberry attained an elevation of 14,000 feet (4,300 m). The caldera-forming event occurred about 75,000 years ago from

4144-604: The Bend area, surrounded the Pilot Butte cinder cone, and filled the Deschutes River bed. In addition to its production of large lava flows, Newberry Volcano has also produced a number of Plinian eruptions similar to the eruption of Vesuvius that destroyed Pompeii and Peléan eruptions like the 1902 explosion of Mount Pelée . These include a number of caldera-forming eruptions, producing ash flow deposits including

4256-415: The Cascades, it formed from several eruption types including more traditional explosive eruptions and more fluid effusive events; thus it is usually classified as a "shield-shaped composite volcano", or shield-shaped stratovolcano. The volcano has a caldera at its summit, which has a diameter of 4 by 5 miles (6.4 by 8.0 km) and features two crater lakes: Paulina Lake and East Lake. This caldera, known as

4368-417: The Earth's volcanic activity (the other 40% is attributed to hotspot volcanism). Caldera structure is similar on all of these planetary bodies, though the size varies considerably. The average caldera diameter on Venus is 68 km (42 mi). The average caldera diameter on Io is close to 40 km (25 mi), and the mode is 6 km (3.7 mi); Tvashtar Paterae is likely the largest caldera with

4480-683: The English term cauldron is also used, though in more recent work the term cauldron refers to a caldera that has been deeply eroded to expose the beds under the caldera floor. The term caldera was introduced into the geological vocabulary by the German geologist Leopold von Buch when he published his memoirs of his 1815 visit to the Canary Islands , where he first saw the Las Cañadas caldera on Tenerife , with Mount Teide dominating

4592-618: The Lava Lands Visitors Center built by the Forest Service in September 1975. The trail to the volcano's summit at Paulina Peak lasts 15.5 miles (24.9 km) from Highway 97, with an easy paved road to the caldera and four rest stops, though it grows steep and twisty near the end. The winding trail near the end is made of gravel and lasts for three miles, offering views of Mount Hood , Mount McLoughlin , and

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4704-514: The Moon have been well preserved through time and were once thought to have been the result of extreme volcanic activity, but are currently believed to have been formed by meteorites, nearly all of which took place in the first few hundred million years after the Moon formed. Around 500 million years afterward, the Moon's mantle was able to be extensively melted due to the decay of radioactive elements. Massive basaltic eruptions took place generally at

4816-627: The Newberry Crater, is forested, with small parts of its surface covered with lava flows and pumice deposits. Before the caldera's creation, the mountain's summit was 500 to 1,000 feet (150 to 300 m) greater in height than its current elevation. The caldera has reformed several times throughout the volcano's history, burying the caldera floor to a depth of 1,640 feet (500 m) and creating concentric calderas, each smaller than its predecessor. The first caldera—the volcano's largest caldera, forming approximately 300,000 years ago—was produced by

4928-621: The Newberry Trend, that moves in a northwest-trending direction from the Harney Basin to Newberry Volcano and the rest of the Cascade Range. Newberry Volcano's origins are somewhat controversial; some scientists think it originated from an independent hotspot , but overwhelming evidence suggests that it is part of the Cascades Arc and was produced by the subduction of the oceanic Juan de Fuca and Gorda tectonic plates under

5040-795: The Newberry Volcano area includes forests of juniper , whitebark pine , ponderosa pine (including Oregon's largest ponderosa pine tree), lodgepole pine , jack pine , and white fir , in addition to other plants like Indian paintbrush , purple penstemon , bitterbrush , manzanita , and snowbrush . Infestations by mountain pine beetles have killed many lodgepole pines in the area. Animals near Newberry Volcano include burrowing owls , kangaroo rats , lizards , bats , rattlesnakes , eagles , porcupines , otters , bobcats , mule deer , Roosevelt elk , ducks , and American pika . Lava flows from Newberry display varied vegetation cover, and there are variable levels of flora between flows, though

5152-514: The Newberry pumice just before 1,300 years ago, reaching several hundred miles to the east. Between the last Ice Age about 12,000 years ago and 7,700 years ago, the volcano erupted at least 12 times. Mount Mazama erupted 7,700 years ago, producing volcanic ash and pumice that accumulated to a thickness of up to 6 feet (1.8 m) on the Newberry Volcano, covering many of the lava flows on its slopes. During three eruptive periods at Newberry over

5264-664: The Pacific Coast region for several thousand years. The first recorded European to visit the volcano was Peter Skene Ogden , a trapper who reached the crater in 1826. In 1855, the volcano's namesake, John Strong Newberry , a surgeon and geologist for the Williamson and Abbot survey party, visited central Oregon while mapping the local area for the Pacific Railroad , but never visited the volcano. Paulina Lake, Paulina Creek, and Paulina Peak are named after Paulina,

5376-589: The Rogen moraines look like tigerstripes on aerial photographs . Rogen moraines are named after Lake Rogen in Härjedalen , Sweden , the landform's type locality. Closely related to Rogen moraines, de Geer moraines are till ridges up to 5m high and 10–50m wide running perpendicular to the ice flow. They occur in large groups in low-lying areas. Named for Gerard De Geer , who first described them in 1889, these moraines may have developed from crevasses underneath

5488-678: The San Juan Mountains of Colorado (formed during the Oligocene , Miocene , and Pliocene epochs) or the Saint Francois Mountain Range of Missouri (erupted during the Proterozoic eon). For their 1968 paper that first introduced the concept of a resurgent caldera to geology, R.L. Smith and R.A. Bailey chose the Valles caldera as their model. Although the Valles caldera is not unusually large, it

5600-726: The Solar System, Olympus Mons , which is more than three times the height of Mount Everest, with a diameter of 520 km (323 miles). The summit of the mountain has six nested calderas. Because there is no plate tectonics on Venus , heat is mainly lost by conduction through the lithosphere . This causes enormous lava flows, accounting for 80% of Venus' surface area. Many of the mountains are large shield volcanoes that range in size from 150–400 km (95–250 mi) in diameter and 2–4 km (1.2–2.5 mi) high. More than 80 of these large shield volcanoes have summit calderas averaging 60 km (37 mi) across. Io, unusually,

5712-764: The Tepee Draw tuff and Black Lapilli tuff, and rising 20 miles (32 km) or more into the stratosphere . The last of these eruptions covered tens of thousands of square miles with ash, extending to the San Francisco Bay Area in California nearly 500 miles (800 km) to the southwest. Here, it reaches a thickness of one centimeter. Additionally, Newberry has produced multiple, voluminous explosive eruptions, with certain studies estimating up to 60 eruptive events of rhyolite and dacite tephra that reach Idaho, Utah, and northern California. These include

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5824-767: The United States' first Moon landing . NASA used the area in October 1964 and July 1966 to geologically train the Apollo Astronauts in recognizing volcanic features, such as cinder and pumice cones, lava flows, ash and obsidian flows, and a lava tube. Astronauts who would use this training on the Moon included Apollo 11 's Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin , Apollo 12 's Alan Bean , Apollo 14 's Edgar Mitchell , Apollo 15 's James Irwin , and Apollo 16 's Charlie Duke . Notable geologist instructors included Aaron Waters. The Newberry National Volcanic Monument

5936-463: The United States, its area of 1.09 square miles (2.8 km) and volume of 0.031 cubic miles (0.13 km) actually place it fifth in the nation. The eruptions, which were both explosive and effusive, began with a Plinian explosion of pumice and tephra that covered the caldera's eastern half and reached several hundred miles to the east. This deposit, called the Newberry pumice, reaches a thickness of 12 feet (3.7 m) up to 5.5 miles (8.9 km) from

6048-411: The base of large impact craters. Also, eruptions may have taken place due to a magma reservoir at the base of the crust. This forms a dome, possibly the same morphology of a shield volcano where calderas universally are known to form. Although caldera-like structures are rare on the Moon, they are not completely absent. The Compton-Belkovich Volcanic Complex on the far side of the Moon is thought to be

6160-685: The bases of many of these cinder cones, forming a matrix of connected flows, and a veneer of pāhoehoe and ʻaʻā lavas can be found on Newberry volcano's northern and southern sides. The northern flank holds three distinct lava tube systems that formed out of pāhoehoe lava: the Horse Lava Tube System (also known as the Horse System), Arnold Lava Tube System , and the Lava Top Butte basalt. About 7,000 years ago, at Newberry's Northwest Rift Zone, lava fountains erupted from

6272-492: The best geothermal energy candidate in the Pacific Northwest ; in 2012, a deep well was built to determine whether water directed into the hole might be heated and returned to the surface in order to yield energy. Newberry Volcano is visited by 250,000 people each year, who come to go fishing for trout in East Lake, to camp on Paulina Lake, or go mountain biking around the 22 miles (35 km) loop that surrounds

6384-750: The blockage clears. Earthquakes unrelated to volcanic activity also take place in Oregon, though they are usually less than 2.5 on the Richter magnitude scale . Volcanoes can also cause earthquakes reaching magnitudes up to 5 on the Richter scale, which sometimes occur as swarms . These clusters of tremors cause shaking of houses, walls, and windows and can crack plaster or walls in older buildings but rarely cause major damage. Powerful earthquakes close to magnitude 7 would cause damage independently, but they would not cause Newberry Volcano to erupt unless it were already on

6496-494: The caldera area of Newberry holds seven campgrounds, two resort areas, and six summer houses. Because Newberry has had recent eruptive activity, has remained active for a long time, and has a shallow heat source feeding hot springs, it represents a source of geothermal energy . An investigation conducted by the United States Geological Survey in 1981 drilled a well 3,057 feet (932 m) in depth at

6608-587: The caldera atop Fernandina Island collapsed in 1968 when parts of the caldera floor dropped 350 metres (1,150 ft). Since the early 1960s, it has been known that volcanism has occurred on other planets and moons in the Solar System . Through the use of crewed and uncrewed spacecraft, volcanism has been discovered on Venus , Mars , the Moon , and Io , a satellite of Jupiter . None of these worlds have plate tectonics , which contributes approximately 60% of

6720-545: The center of the caldera. Compositionally, lava from the Newberry Volcano has varied from primitive basalts with high magnesium levels to more evolved tholeiitic and calc-alkaline deposits (based on the major element characteristics of the lavas). Primitive lavas exhibit high abundances of chromium and nickel as well as variable concentrations of fluid-mobile elements like barium and strontium . Tholeiitic and calc-alkaline lavas display overlap in magnesium, calcium oxide , and aluminum oxide levels but differ in that

6832-676: The collapsed magma chamber, the center of the caldera may be uplifted in the form of a resurgent dome such as is seen at the Valles Caldera , Lake Toba , the San Juan volcanic field, Cerro Galán , Yellowstone , and many other calderas. Because a silicic caldera may erupt hundreds or even thousands of cubic kilometers of material in a single event, it can cause catastrophic environmental effects. Even small caldera-forming eruptions, such as Krakatoa in 1883 or Mount Pinatubo in 1991, may result in significant local destruction and

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6944-499: The continental North American Plate . However, Newberry Volcano has been transformed by tectonic processes, possibly related to subductive mechanisms that enhance melting of the Juan de Fuca tectonic plate. The High Lava Plains Trend, or the Newberry Trend, moves at an oblique angle to the underlying North American tectonic plate, for which subduction counterflow, gravitational flow along the lithosphere 's base, faulting, and extension of

7056-791: The crater. The lakes are also popular for boating . At the Newberry National Volcanic Monument, camping, fishing, and hiking are popular, including on the Trail of the Molten Land, which follows a 7,000-year-old lava flow from Lava Butte, and the Trail of the Whispering Pines, which traverses a ponderosa pine forest. Horse riding is also possible in a section of the Peter Skene Ogden Trail, 3 miles (4.8 km) long, which runs through

7168-472: The dynamics on the ice, and the location on the glacier in which the moraine is formed. Moraine forming processes may be loosely divided into passive and active . Passive processes involve the placing of chaotic supraglacial sediments onto the landscape with limited reworking, typically forming hummocky moraines. These moraines are composed of supraglacial sediments from the ice surface. Active processes form or rework moraine sediment directly by

7280-924: The edges of lava flows. All lava flows support patches of grasses such as Idaho fescue , especially on north-facing slopes. One lava flow at Lava Butte is barren except for scattered, dense patches of greenleaf manzanita . The Lava Cast Forest is a group of trees molded by lava from an eruption 6,000 years ago. Today, the surrounding site lies within the Newberry National Volcanic Monument and includes 11 kīpukas , plots of land surrounded by one or more younger lava flows. These habitat islands range from 0.74 to 279.23 acres (0.3 to 113 ha) in area and sustain forests that have not been significantly altered by humans other than nearby fire suppression and land management efforts. Consisting of pure and mixed forest stands, these forests include ponderosa pine, lodgepole pine, and grand fir /white fir hybrid trees, which are supported by young soils derived from Mazama pumice. Overlapping with

7392-410: The eruption of 2.5 cubic miles (10 km) of pyroclastic ejecta, which created the Tepee Draw tuff and ash deposits that cover the volcano's eastern flank. The last crater formed after an explosive eruption about 80,000 years ago, which ejected up to 2.5 cubic miles (10 km) of pyroclastic materials. Throughout this progression, the volcano shifted from rhyodacitic pumice to basaltic ash flows,

7504-537: The eruption that produced the Paulina Creek tephra between 55,000 and 50,000 years ago, and the eruption from 20,000 years ago responsible for the Wono tephra, which extends into western Nevada and east-central California. As a result of compositional zoning within the magma chamber that feeds the volcano, its ash deposits may show different chemical and mineralogical makeups. The last of these tephra eruptions yielded

7616-467: The flows themselves move at rates of 30 feet (9.1 m) per minute, and thus could be escaped by animals and humans, they would destroy stationary structures in their paths. Pyroclastic flows, on the other hand, travel at speeds of 20 to 200 miles per hour (32 to 322 km/h), and their violent force could incinerate or pulverize objects in their path, or asphyxiate living things. If another caldera-forming eruption of similar magnitude to previous ones at

7728-493: The glacier is advancing, receding or at equilibrium. The longer the terminus of the glacier stays in one place, the more debris accumulate in the moraine. There are two types of end moraines: terminal and recessional. Terminal moraines mark the maximum advance of the glacier. Recessional moraines are small ridges left as a glacier pauses during its retreat. After a glacier retreats, the end moraine may be destroyed by postglacial erosion. Recessional moraines are often observed as

7840-467: The human species was reduced to approximately 5,000–10,000 people. There is no direct evidence, however, that either theory is correct, and there is no evidence for any other animal decline or extinction, even in environmentally sensitive species. There is evidence that human habitation continued in India after the eruption. Some volcanoes, such as the large shield volcanoes Kīlauea and Mauna Loa on

7952-449: The ice sheet. The Kvarken has a very high density of de Geer moraines. End moraines, or terminal moraines , are ridges of unconsolidated debris deposited at the snout or end of the glacier. They usually reflect the shape of the glacier's terminus . Glaciers act much like a conveyor belt, carrying debris from the top of the glacier to the bottom where it deposits it in end moraines. End moraine size and shape are determined by whether

8064-429: The island of Hawaii , form calderas in a different fashion. The magma feeding these volcanoes is basalt , which is silica poor. As a result, the magma is much less viscous than the magma of a rhyolitic volcano, and the magma chamber is drained by large lava flows rather than by explosive events. The resulting calderas are also known as subsidence calderas and can form more gradually than explosive calderas. For instance,

8176-691: The lake. It was possibly caused by the failure of a rock ledge 5 feet (1.5 m) in height, rather than eruptive activity. Another flood took place in 1909 on the Deschutes River downstream from where it meets its tributary the Little Deschutes River . The Newberry National Volcanic Monument forms part of the northern section of the Mazama Ecological Province, which has soil comprised by aeolian pumice and volcanic products over basalt bedrock . Flora within

8288-484: The landscape, and then the Caldera de Taburiente on La Palma . A collapse is triggered by the emptying of the magma chamber beneath the volcano, sometimes as the result of a large explosive volcanic eruption (see Tambora in 1815), but also during effusive eruptions on the flanks of a volcano (see Piton de la Fournaise in 2007) or in a connected fissure system (see Bárðarbunga in 2014–2015). If enough magma

8400-479: The late Pleistocene , Newberry Volcano produced a number of voluminous lava flows, made of basalt, which originated from several vents on its northern flank and reached the modern areas of Bend and Redmond . They filled canyons that served as precursors for the Deschutes and Crooked rivers–since eroded–and extended tens of miles from the volcano. Lava from the last of these eruptions about 78,000 years ago covered

8512-479: The latter producing the Black Lapilli tuff that covers the western side of the volcano. Since the last caldera-forming eruption 80,000 years ago, the volcano has undergone silicic eruptions at the caldera and produced basaltic and basaltic andesite lava flows that extended down its outer flanks. The tephra and ash from the Black Lapilli tuff by the caldera formed agglutinates around its rim. Newberry Volcano

8624-418: The level of vegetation and species diversity generally increase with elevation. Dominant plant species on lava flows include oceanspray and wax currant , with rabbitbrush also common. Though forbs are not widespread on the lava flows, where they do occur Davidson's penstemon and hotrock penstemon dominate. Above elevations of 4,890 feet (1,490 m), roundleaf alumroot is common, particularly near

8736-561: The magma to produce a mixture of volcanic ash and other tephra with the very hot gases. The mixture of ash and volcanic gases initially rises into the atmosphere as an eruption column . However, as the volume of erupted material increases, the eruption column is unable to entrain enough air to remain buoyant, and the eruption column collapses into a tephra fountain that falls back to the surface to form pyroclastic flows . Eruptions of this type can spread ash over vast areas, so that ash flow tuffs emplaced by silicic caldera eruptions are

8848-562: The major crest of the Cascade Range in the High Lava Plains region, rising 3,500 feet (1,100 m) above its surroundings. From north to south, the volcano runs for a length of 75 miles (121 km), with a width of 27 miles (43 km) and a total volume of about 140 cubic miles (600 km). Because of its enormous size and topographic prominence, it is often confused for an entire mountain range. Newberry Volcano has

8960-505: The mantle. By volume, basaltic andesite is the principal lava type at Newberry Volcano, with large volumes of silicic lava among older ash flow tuff deposits. Vents at the volcano follow north-east and north-west trends influenced by extension of the Basin and Range Province. With more than 400 vents, Newberry has more individual subfeatures than any other volcano in the contiguous United States. These include cinder cones , lava domes, and various other lava edifices, with at least 25 vents on

9072-517: The monument area; snowmobiling and cross-country skiing are also popular. The Lava Lands Visitor Center within the Monument has an exhibit on the area's geology and culture and offers a paved path that runs for 5.5 miles (8.9 km). A shuttle leaves from the center every 20 minutes during the peak season from Memorial Day through Labor Day, costing $ 2 per traveler. The area can also be accessed by personal motorized vehicles during off season with

9184-426: The movement of ice, known as glaciotectonism. These form push moraines and thrust-block moraines, which are often composed of till and reworked proglacial sediment. Moraine may also form by the accumulation of sand and gravel deposits from glacial streams emanating from the ice margin. These fan deposits may coalesce to form a long moraine bank marking the ice margin. Several processes may combine to form and rework

9296-399: The nearby Three Sisters volcano complex to 22 miles (35 km) near Newberry, where it has a high Poisson's ratio . The oldest rocks in this region include silicic (rich in silica ) lava domes from the late Miocene or early Pliocene , which lie near the province's eastern and southern borders, respectively. Volcanism in this area suggests a progression of silicic eruptions, known as

9408-490: The north and west and has an arching ceiling with a thickness of 45 feet (14 m). This trail represents the monument's most popular attraction and can be hiked between May and mid-September with a recreation day pass that costs $ 5. Jackets are recommended, as the temperature within the cave is usually 40 °F (4 °C). The Lava Cast Forest, a group of trees molded by lava from an eruption 6,000 years ago, covers an area of 5 square miles (13 km) and can be observed from

9520-401: The northeastern rim is 82 feet (25 m) taller than the southwestern counterpart, this cinder cone sits 10 miles (16 km) south of Bend. The nearby Badlands shield volcano, which formed out of a rootless vent to produce a large basaltic lava flow at Newberry, has a diameter of 8 miles (13 km). It has pāhoehoe lava throughout its surface, with tumuli (mounds of earth and stones) and

9632-710: The northwestern corner of the Basin and Range Province , also known as the High Lava Plains, Newberry Volcano lies within a Cenozoic highland marked by normal faults known as the Brothers Fault Zone . It is situated at the intersection of the Brothers Fault Zone with the north–northwest-trending Sisters and northeast-trending Walker Rim fault zones. In the mantle under Newberry Volcano, P and S seismic waves exhibit an unusually low wave velocity. The Earth's crust thins from 31 miles (50 km) at

9744-476: The only volcanic product with volumes rivaling those of flood basalts . For example, when Yellowstone Caldera last erupted some 650,000 years ago, it released about 1,000 km of material (as measured in dense rock equivalent (DRE)), covering a substantial part of North America in up to two metres of debris. Eruptions forming even larger calderas are known, such as the La Garita Caldera in

9856-536: The past 7,500 years, the caldera has seen rhyolitic eruptions from seven individual vents. About 7,000 years ago, eruptions occurred along the rift zone northwest of Newberry Volcano's caldera, yielding 12 lava flows that encompassed an area of 23 square miles (60 km). At about the same time, the Central Pumice cone was produced by eruptions that also formed the Interlake and Game Hut obsidian flows from

9968-462: The ring fracture begins to collapse. The collapse may occur as the result of a single cataclysmic eruption, or it may occur in stages as the result of a series of eruptions. The total area that collapses may be hundreds of square kilometers. Some calderas are known to host rich ore deposits . Metal-rich fluids can circulate through the caldera, forming hydrothermal ore deposits of metals such as lead, silver, gold, mercury, lithium, and uranium. One of

10080-565: The south of the city of Bend , at the intersection of Deschutes , Klamath and Lake counties in Oregon , where it is one of the most accessible volcanoes in the state. It is the largest volcano in the Cascade Volcanic Arc at 620 square miles (1,600 km), and has roughly the same area as the state of Rhode Island at 1,200 square miles (3,100 km) if its lava flows are included. Newberry lies 37 miles (60 km) east of

10192-435: The summit, including Paulina Peak, which has a width of one mile and reaches within 3 miles (4.8 km) of the wall of the caldera. Hot springs can be found at Paulina Lake and East Lake, along with one fumarole gas vent at Lost Lake, located near the Big Obsidian lava flow. These discharge gases like water vapor and carbon dioxide and give off a rotten smell, though the composition has few noxious components. During

10304-419: The surface in the ablation zone , melting of surface ice or from debris that falls onto the glacier from valley sidewalls. Washboard moraines , also known as minor or corrugated moraines , are low-amplitude geomorphic features caused by glaciers. They consist of low-relief ridges, 1 to 2 meters (3 ft 3 in to 6 ft 7 in) in height and around 100 meters (330 ft) apart, accumulated at

10416-476: The surrounding area. During an archaeological excavation near Paulina Lake in 1992, researchers discovered remnants of a central hearth and a housing structure with support posts and linear rock arrangements with dimensions of 13 by 16 feet (4.0 by 4.9 m). Radiocarbon dating of charcoal samples from the site were dated to 11,000 years ago. The mountain's caldera was used to harvest obsidian, which they used to sharpen arrowheads and tools and traded throughout

10528-695: The tholeiites have lower contents of silica and potassium oxide and higher iron(II) oxide , titanium dioxide , and sodium oxide . There is also much overlap in isotopic composition , though the tholeiitic lavas mark the low point for Sr/Sr and the high point for Nd/Nd and Hf/Hf . Examination of Newberry lavas with olivine-plagioclase hygrometry shows that tholeiites are anhydrous (less than 0.5 percentage by weight water ) and thus distinct from calc-alkaline deposits ( 2–4 percentage by weight water ); both have different fractional crystallization sequences that derive from primitive magmas, which had their compositions influenced by equilibrium with peridotite in

10640-541: The thousands of volcanic eruptions that occur over the course of a century, the formation of a caldera is a rare event, occurring only a few times within a given window of 100 years. Only eight caldera-forming collapses are known to have occurred between 1911 and 2018, with a caldera collapse at Kīlauea , Hawaii in 2018. Volcanoes that have formed a caldera are sometimes described as "caldera volcanoes". The term caldera comes from Spanish caldera , and Latin caldaria , meaning "cooking pot". In some texts

10752-468: The two crater lakes, eruptions at Newberry Volcano may become more explosive and more likely to produce pyroclastic flows. Moreover, if pyroclastic flows mix with snow or water overflowing from the crater lakes, they could spawn lahars , volcanically induced mudslides , landslides , and debris flows that could devastate the Paulina Creek valley and reach the La Pine valley within 30 minutes. Threats from

10864-580: The valley, or may be subglacial debris carried to the surface of the glacier, melted out, and transported to the glacier margin. Lateral moraines can rise up to 140 meters (460 ft) over the valley floor, can be up to 3 kilometers (1.9 mi) long, and are steeper close to the glacier margin (up to 80 degrees) than further away (where slopes are typically 29 to 36 degrees. Ground moraines are till-covered areas with irregular topography and no ridges, often forming gently rolling hills or plains, with relief of less than 10 meters (33 ft). Ground moraine

10976-515: The vent that produced it, which is located at the southern flank of the caldera, and a thickness of 10 inches (25 cm) up to 40 miles (64 km) from the volcano. Because of strong westerly winds, tephra reached as far east as Idaho. This eruption also produced pyroclastic flows that left volcanic bombs in Paulina Lake. Though Newberry Volcano is currently quiet, the United States Geological Survey considers it an active volcano with

11088-518: The verge of activity. Additional threats exist for rockfalls and avalanches . If Newberry Volcano were to erupt, it should be possible to detect increased seismic activity, while increased production of volcanic gas would likely kill trees near the volcano, which scientists would quickly recognize before notifying emergency management agencies. Before 2011, Newberry was monitored by just one seismic station that had been installed in 1987 and had only detected seven earthquakes within 12 miles (19 km) of

11200-504: The volcano has ever been able to support glaciers on its slopes, since the mountain lacks cirques (amphitheater-like valleys formed by glacial erosion) or evidence of contact between lava and ice. However, displaced glacial erratics have been found far from their native areas, moraine sediment has been deposited on the eastern and northeastern slopes of the volcano, and the mountain's various cone features have "boat" shapes that indicate glacial alteration. The precise history of glaciers on

11312-427: The volcano is debated, but dry channels and dry waterfalls on the eastern and western slopes are evidence that the volcano once held water. The volcano has two crater lakes, Paulina Lake and East Lake , which are filled by precipitation and percolation of ground water. Paulina Lake occupies an area of 1,530 acres (6.2 km) and reaches a maximum depth of 250 feet (76 m), and it is separated from East Lake by

11424-521: The volcano occurred, pyroclastic flows could devastate the area surrounding the volcano for up to 30 miles (48 km). However, pyroclastic flows have been rare at Newberry. Tephra from explosive eruptions would short-circuit electric transformers and power lines, clog engine filters, produce clouds that might yield lightning, and pose a hazard to aircraft overhead. It would also pose health hazards because ash particles can irritate eyes, and when ingested, lungs, among other health issues. Because of water from

11536-470: The volcano pose hazards to about 16,400 people who live within 19 miles (30 km) and more than 180,000 people living within 62 miles (100 km). In addition to threats from volcanic activity, at least one flood has taken place at Newberry Volcano in the past, though it may not have been a result of eruptive activity. If lava flows from an eruption blocked the Deschutes River, they might generate floods upstream by increasing water level and downstream once

11648-573: The volcano's flanks and summits becoming active within the past 10,000 years. Most of the cinder cones on the volcano's edifice vary from 200 to 400 feet (61 to 122 m) in elevation, though a number of them reach heights above 500 feet (150 m) with diameters greater than 1 ⁄ 2 mile (0.80 km). Most of these exhibit saucer-like summit depression landforms, with notable exceptions at Lava Top and North Kawak Buttes, which have craters that are 200 to 300 feet (61 to 91 m) in depth. Basaltic and basaltic andesite lava flows have penetrated

11760-400: The volcano's vicinity to monitor any swelling that occurs as a result of underground movement of magma. Despite historical uplift at the volcano, deformation has remained continuously low in recent years. The area around Newberry Volcano has been inhabited by Native American peoples for more than 10,000 years, though only intermittently as a result of eruptive activity at the volcano and in

11872-514: The volcano, though this remains contested. The area has a dry climate with low precipitation levels and little surface runoff . The origin of the volcano remains somewhat unclear; while some scientists believe it originated from an independent hotspot , most evidence indicates that it formed from the subduction of the oceanic Juan de Fuca and Gorda tectonic plates under the continental North American Plate . Eruptive activity at Newberry Volcano began about 600,000 years ago and has continued into

11984-749: The volcano. In 2011, scientists from the Cascades Volcano Observatory installed eight more seismic and deformation monitors in the volcano's vicinity, which has seen the number of detectable earthquakes rise to 10–15 per year. The volcano continues to be closely monitored by the United States Geological Survey, which monitors a seismometer network with the geophysics program at the University of Washington and regularly conducts leveling surveys to check for deformation that could suggest impending activity, in addition to sampling geothermal areas. There are GPS instruments installed within

12096-446: The winter season. Spring has average temperatures of 60 °F (16 °C), while fall temperatures average 67 °F (19 °C). Each year, total precipitation consisting of winter snow and summer rain varies from 9.8 to 29.5 inches (25 to 75 cm) in the highest parts of the region, and surface runoff rarely occurs even during heavy rain showers. Only one stream appears on Newberry's entire surface, and it remains unclear whether

12208-653: The world's best-preserved mineralized calderas is the Sturgeon Lake Caldera in northwestern Ontario , Canada, which formed during the Neoarchean era about 2.7 billion years ago. In the San Juan volcanic field , ore veins were emplaced in fractures associated with several calderas, with the greatest mineralization taking place near the youngest and most silicic intrusions associated with each caldera. Explosive caldera eruptions are produced by

12320-707: Was established in November 1990 by the United States Congress . With an area of more than 54,000 acres (220 km), it forms a near-circular shape around the summit caldera and then a long corridor from the mountain's northwestern side to the Deschutes River that includes a rift zone . The Monument lies within the Deschutes National Forest , which is managed by the United States Forest Service . As of 1997,

12432-516: Was known as Newberry Crater until it was renamed to the Newberry Volcano in the 1930s by geologist Howel Williams , a name which was formally accepted in 2003 when geologist Larry Chitwood supported it through the official geographic naming process. Because of the efforts of Hollis Dole, head of the Oregon Department of Geology , to promote the area, in 1963 NASA scientists became interested in using lava fields at Newberry to prepare for

12544-464: Was the largest known eruption during the ongoing Quaternary period (the last 2.6 million years) and the largest known explosive eruption during the last 25 million years. In the late 1990s, anthropologist Stanley Ambrose proposed that a volcanic winter induced by this eruption reduced the human population to about 2,000–20,000 individuals, resulting in a population bottleneck . More recently, Lynn Jorde and Henry Harpending proposed that

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