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71-434: Pentobarbital (US) or pentobarbitone (British and Australian) is a short-acting barbiturate typically used as a sedative , a preanesthetic , and to control convulsions in emergencies. It can also be used for short-term treatment of insomnia but has been largely replaced by the benzodiazepine family of drugs. In high doses, pentobarbital causes death by respiratory arrest . It is used for veterinary euthanasia and

142-470: A December 2020 ProPublica article, by 2017 the federal Bureau of Prisons (BOP), in discussion with then Attorney General Jeff Sessions , had begun to search for suppliers of pentobarbital to be used in lethal injections. The BOP was aware that the use of pentobarbital as their "new drug choice" would be challenged in the courts because some lawyers had said that "pentobarbital would flood prisoners' lungs with froth and foam, inflicting pain and terror akin to

213-438: A class of depressant drugs that are chemically derived from barbituric acid . They are effective when used medically as anxiolytics , hypnotics , and anticonvulsants , but have physical and psychological addiction potential as well as overdose potential among other possible adverse effects. They have been used recreationally for their anti-anxiety and sedative effects, and are thus controlled in most countries due to

284-482: A commercial platform in the USA. In 2012, to focus on newer, strategic CNS-products, Lundbeck sold a portfolio of non-core products to Recordati S.p.A. (Recordati Rare Diseases). In 2014 Lundbeck acquired Chelsea Therapeutics for up to $ 658 million. In March 2018, the company acquired Prexton Therapeutics for up to €905 million ($ 1.1 billion) In June 2018, the former Millennium Pharmaceuticals CEO, Deborah Dunsire,

355-638: A common practice anymore, however, owing to the dangers of long-term use of barbiturates; they have been replaced by the benzodiazepines and Z-drug such as zolpidem, zaleplon and eszopiclone for sleep. The final class of barbiturates are known as long-acting barbiturates (the most notable one being phenobarbital, which has a half-life of roughly 92 hours). This class of barbiturates is used almost exclusively as anticonvulsants , although on rare occasions they are prescribed for daytime sedation. Barbiturates in this class are not used for insomnia, because, owing to their extremely long half-life, patients would awake with

426-420: A day or more, and subsequently result in bioaccumulation of the drug in the system. The therapeutic and recreational effects of long-acting barbiturates wear off significantly faster than the drug can be eliminated, allowing the drug to reach toxic concentrations in the blood following repeated administration (even when taken at the therapeutic or prescribed dose) despite the user feeling little or no effects from

497-429: A death by drowning." BOP claimed that these concerns were unjustified and that their two expert witnesses asserted that the use of pentobarbital was "humane". On 25 July 2019, US Attorney General William Barr directed the federal government to resume capital punishment after 16 years. The federal protocol provides for intravenous administration of two syringes each containing 2.5 grams of pentobarbital sodium followed by

568-480: A derivative of barbituric acid, or any salt of a derivative of barbituric acid" (all other barbiturates) were designated as being schedule III . Under the original CSA, no barbiturates were placed in schedule I, II, or V; however, amobarbital, pentobarbital, and secobarbital are now schedule II controlled substances unless they are in a suppository dosage form. In 1971, the Convention on Psychotropic Substances

639-683: A doctor, owing to the high lethality and relatively sudden onset of the withdrawal. Attempting to quit "cold turkey" may result in neurological damage due to excitotoxicity, severe physical injuries received during convulsions, and even death resulting from arrhythmias during grande Mal seizures, paralleling death caused by delirium tremens. Some symptoms of an overdose typically include sluggishness, incoordination, difficulty in thinking, slowness of speech, faulty judgement, drowsiness, shallow breathing, staggering, and, in severe cases, coma or death. The lethal dosage of barbiturates varies greatly with tolerance and from one individual to another. The lethal dose

710-491: A manner similar to long-acting benzodiazepines such as diazepam and clonazepam . Often polysubstance use occurs and barbiturates are consumed with or substituted by other available substances, most commonly alcohol. People who use substances tend to prefer short-acting and intermediate-acting barbiturates. The most commonly used are amobarbital (Amytal), pentobarbital (Nembutal), and secobarbital (Seconal). A combination of amobarbital and secobarbital (called Tuinal )

781-495: A new distribution system, Nembutal will be supplied exclusively through a specialty pharmacy drop ship program that will deny distribution of the product to prisons in U.S. states currently active in carrying out the death penalty by lethal injection. In December 2011, Lundbeck divested a portfolio of products including Nembutal to US pharmaceutical company Akorn Inc. As part of the agreement, Akorn committed to continue with Lundbeck's restricted distribution program for Nembutal, which

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852-478: A number of different pharmaceuticals for the treatment of psychiatric and neurological disorders. The most recently launched compounds include: Rexulti (depression and schizophrenia), Brintellix (depression) and Abilify Maintena (schizophrenia and bipolar 1). Lundbeck manufactures drugs such as: Lundbeck formerly held the only license to manufacture pentobarbital (Nembutal) in the United States. The drug

923-401: A patient "under" in emergency surgery situations. Doctors can also bring a patient out of anesthesia just as quickly, should complications arise during surgery. The middle two classes of barbiturates are often combined under the title "short/intermediate-acting." These barbiturates are also employed for anesthetic purposes, and are also sometimes prescribed for anxiety or insomnia . This is not

994-499: A residual "hang-over" effect and feel groggy. Barbiturates can in most cases be used either as the free acid or as salts of sodium, calcium, potassium, magnesium, lithium, etc. Codeine - and dionine -based salts of barbituric acid have been developed. During World War II , military personnel in the Pacific region were given "goofballs" to improve their tolerance of the heat and humidity of daily working conditions. Goofballs reduced

1065-624: A saline flush. Like other barbiturates, pentobarbital binds to the barbiturate-binding site on the GABA-A receptor . This action increases the duration of ion-channel opening. At high doses, pentobarbital is capable of opening the ion channel in the absence of GABA . Pentobarbital undergoes first-pass metabolism in the liver and possibly the intestines. Administration of ethanol , benzodiazepines , opioids , antihistamines , other sedative-hypnotics , and other central nervous system depressants will cause possible additive effects. Pentobarbital

1136-505: Is also highly used. Short-acting and intermediate-acting barbiturates are usually prescribed as sedatives and sleeping pills. These pills begin acting fifteen to forty minutes after they are swallowed, and their effects last from five to six hours. Slang terms for barbiturates include barbs, barbies, bluebirds, dolls, wallbangers, yellows, downers, goofballs, sleepers, 'reds & blues', and tooties. (it lacks oxygen at #2 position of generic barbiturate structure) (the oxygen at #2 position

1207-415: Is an extended process often consisting of converting the patient to a long-acting benzodiazepine (i.e. Valium ), followed by slowly tapering off the benzodiazepine. Mental cravings for barbiturates can last for months or years in some cases and counselling/support groups are highly encouraged by addiction specialists. Patients should never try to tackle the task of discontinuing barbiturates without consulting

1278-405: Is an ultra-short-acting barbiturate that is marketed under the name Sodium Pentothal. It is often mistaken for " truth serum ", or sodium amytal , an intermediate-acting barbiturate that is used for sedation and to treat insomnia, but was also used in so-called sodium amytal "interviews" where the person being questioned would incorrectly be thought to be more likely to provide the truth whilst under

1349-424: Is associated with significant morbidity. One study found that 11% of males and 23% of females with a sedative - hypnotic misuse die by suicide. Other effects of barbiturate intoxication include drowsiness , lateral and vertical nystagmus , slurred speech and ataxia , decreased anxiety, and loss of inhibitions. Barbiturates are also used to alleviate the adverse or withdrawal effects of illicit drug use, in

1420-404: Is commonly used for execution by lethal injection in the United States (either as part of a three drug cocktail or by itself). After coming under criticism for not adding an ‘end user’ agreement to prevent importers from selling Nembutal to American prisons for use in executions, Lundbeck announced that it would not sell Nembutal to prisons in U.S. states that carry out executions. By introducing

1491-404: Is considered one of the most dangerous withdrawals of any known addictive substance. Similarly to benzodiazepines, the longer acting barbiturates produce a less severe withdrawal syndrome than short acting and ultra-short acting barbiturates. Withdrawal symptoms are dose-dependent with heavier users being more affected than lower-dose addicts. The pharmacological treatment of barbiturate withdrawal

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1562-420: Is highly variable among different members of the class, with superpotent barbiturates such as pentobarbital being potentially fatal in considerably lower doses than the low-potency barbiturates such as butalbital. Even in inpatient settings, the development of tolerance is still a problem, as dangerous and unpleasant withdrawal symptoms can result when the drug is stopped after dependence has developed. Tolerance to

1633-450: Is induced within 30 seconds, and the heart stops beating within 3 minutes. Oral administration is also used. A Swiss pharmacist reported in 2022 that the dose for assisted suicide had been raised to 15 grams because with lower doses death was preceded by a coma of up to 10 hours in some cases. Pentobarbital has been used or considered as a substitute for the barbiturate sodium thiopental used for capital punishment by lethal injection in

1704-454: Is not commercially available. Pentobarbital was developed by Ernest H. Volwiler and Donalee L. Tabern  [ de ] at Abbott Laboratories in 1930. Typical applications for pentobarbital are sedative , short term hypnotic , preanesthetic , insomnia treatment, and control of convulsions in emergencies. Abbott Pharmaceutical discontinued manufacture of their Nembutal brand of Pentobarbital capsules in 1999, largely replaced by

1775-480: Is preceded by an antiemetic to prevent vomiting. It is taken by mouth for physician-assisted death in the United States states of Oregon, Washington, Vermont, and California (as of January 2016). The oral dosage of pentobarbital indicated for physician-assisted suicide in Oregon is typically 10 g of liquid. In Switzerland , sodium pentobarbital is administered to the patient intravenously . Once administered, sleep

1846-812: Is replaced by a sulfur) Thiopental is a barbiturate with one of the C=O double bonds (with the carbon being labelled 2 in the adjacent diagram) replaced with a C=S double bond, R being CH 2 CH 3 (ethyl) and R3) being CH(CH 3 )CH 2 CH 2 CH 3 ( sec -pentyl). Thiopental is no longer available in the United States. Lundbeck Headquartered in Copenhagen , Denmark, Lundbeck has approximately 5,600 employees in more than 50 countries, and their products are registered in more than 100 countries. They have production facilities in Denmark, France and Italy and their research centers are based in Denmark and

1917-429: Is somewhat more complex than telling the truth, especially under the influence of a sedative-hypnotic drug. The memory-impairing effects and cognitive impairments induced by sodium thiopental are thought to reduce a subject's ability to invent and remember lies. This practice is no longer considered legally admissible in court, owing to findings that subjects undergoing such interrogations may form false memories, putting

1988-417: Is specifically exempted from controlled substance status, while its sibling Fiorinal , which contains aspirin instead of paracetamol and may contain codeine phosphate, remains a schedule III drug. Recreational users report that a barbiturate high gives them feelings of relaxed contentment and euphoria . Physical and psychological dependence may also develop with repeated use. Chronic misuse of barbiturates

2059-413: Is synthesized by methods analogous to that of amobarbital , the only difference being that the alkylation of α-ethylmalonic ester is carried out with 2-bromopentane in place of 1-bromo-3-methylbutane to give pentobarbital. Pentobarbital can occur as a free acid , but is usually formulated as the sodium salt , pentobarbital sodium. The free acid is only slightly soluble in water and in ethanol while

2130-629: Is the principal excitatory neurotransmitter in the mammalian CNS. Taken together, the findings that barbiturates potentiate inhibitory GABA A receptors and inhibit excitatory AMPA receptors can explain the superior CNS-depressant effects of these agents to alternative GABA potentiating agents such as benzodiazepines and quinazolinones . At higher concentration, they inhibit the Ca -dependent release of neurotransmitters such as glutamate via an effect on P / Q-type voltage-dependent calcium channels . Barbiturates produce their pharmacological effects by increasing

2201-465: Is used by some US states and the United States federal government for executions of convicted criminals by lethal injection . In some countries and states, it is also used for physician-assisted suicide . Pentobarbital was widely abused beginning in the late 1930s and sometimes known as "yellow jackets" due to the yellow color of Nembutal-branded capsules. Pentobarbital in oral (pill) form

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2272-512: Is used for euthanasia for humans as well as animals. It is taken alone, or in combination with complementary agents such as phenytoin , in commercial animal euthanasia injectable solutions. In the Netherlands , pentobarbital is part of the standard protocol for physician-assisted suicide for self-administration by the patient. It is given in liquid form, in a solution of sugar syrup and alcohol , containing 9 grams of pentobarbital. This

2343-559: The Second World War , although it was limited due to a lack of raw materials. After the war, Lundbeck continued to grow and in 1957 the company introduced Truxal ( chlorprothixene ) for the treatment of schizophrenia, entering the market for brain disorders. In 1954, the Lundbeck Foundation was established to maintain and expand the activities of Lundbeck Group and also to provide funding for scientific research of

2414-673: The US . Lundbeck is listed on the Copenhagen Stock Exchange (CSE). Lundbeck is a full member of the European Federation of Pharmaceutical Industries and Associations (EFPIA) and of the International Federation of Pharmaceutical Manufacturers and Associations (IFPMA) The company was founded by Hans Lundbeck in 1915, and was initially a trading company supplying a variety of goods to

2485-568: The 1970s most barbiturates were replaced by benzodiazepines . Barbituric acid itself does not have any direct effect on the central nervous system and chemists have derived over 2,500 compounds from it that possess pharmacologically active qualities. The broad class of barbiturates is further broken down and classified according to speed of onset and duration of action. Ultrashort-acting barbiturates are commonly used for anesthesia because their extremely short duration of action allows for greater control. These properties allow doctors to rapidly put

2556-497: The Danish market, including machinery for manufacturing , aluminium foil , artificial sweeteners , and photographic equipment . Lundbeck entered the pharmaceutical market in 1924, importing medicines and cosmetics from companies based in other European and American countries. By the late 1930s, Lundbeck had begun to produce its own medicinal products and had established its own research department. Production continued during

2627-536: The Danish pharmaceutical company Lundbeck (now produced by Akorn Pharmaceuticals) is the only injectable form of pentobarbital approved for sale in the United States. Abbott discontinued its Nembutal brand of pentobarbital capsules in 1999, largely replaced by the benzodiazepine family of drugs. Abbott's Nembutal, known on the streets as "yellow jackets", was widely abused. They were available as 30, 50, and 100 mg capsules of yellow, white-orange, and yellow colors, respectively. Barbiturate Barbiturates are

2698-492: The GABA A receptor at multiple homologous transmembrane pockets located at subunit interfaces, which are binding sites distinct from GABA itself and also distinct from the benzodiazepine binding site. Like benzodiazepines, barbiturates potentiate the effect of GABA at this receptor. In addition to this GABAergic effect, barbiturates also block AMPA and kainate receptors , subtypes of ionotropic glutamate receptor . Glutamate

2769-665: The GABA A receptor channel is only one of several representatives. This Cys-loop receptor superfamily of ion channels includes the neuronal nACh receptor channel, the 5-HT 3 receptor channel, and the glycine receptor channel. However, while GABA A receptor currents are increased by barbiturates (and other general anesthetics), ligand-gated ion channels that are predominantly permeable for cationic ions are blocked by these compounds. For example, neuronal nAChR channels are blocked by clinically relevant anesthetic concentrations of both thiopental and pentobarbital. Such findings implicate (non-GABA-ergic) ligand-gated ion channels, e.g.

2840-599: The United States when that drug became unavailable. In 2011 the U.S. manufacturer of sodium thiopental stopped production, and importation of the drug proved impossible. Pentobarbital was used in a U.S. execution for the first time in December 2010 in Oklahoma, as part of a three-drug protocol. In March 2011 pentobarbital was used for the first time as the sole drug in a U.S. execution, in Ohio. Since then several states as well as

2911-617: The anxiolytic and sedative effects of barbiturates tends to develop faster than tolerance to their effects on smooth muscle, respiration, and heart rate, making them generally unsuitable for a long time psychiatric use. Tolerance to the anticonvulsant effects tends to correlate more with tolerance to physiological effects, however, meaning that they are still a viable option for long-term epilepsy treatment. Barbiturates in overdose with other CNS (central nervous system) depressants (e.g. alcohol, opiates, benzodiazepines) are even more dangerous owing to additive CNS and respiratory depressant effects. In

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2982-434: The basic structure, mainly in position 5 on the ring. In modern chemistry the barbiturates are often presented by its Hirshfeld surface representations showing its intermolecular interactions [1] calculated with CrystalExplorer Program. Sodium barbital and barbital have also been used as pH buffers for biological research, e.g., in immuno-electrophoresis or in fixative solutions. Barbiturates are classified based on

3053-471: The benzodiazepine family of drugs. Pentobarbital can reduce intracranial pressure in Reye's syndrome , treat traumatic brain injury and induce coma in cerebral ischemia patients. Pentobarbital-induced coma has been advocated in patients with acute liver failure refractory to mannitol . Pentobarbital is also used as a veterinary anesthetic agent. Pentobarbital can cause death when used in high doses. It

3124-496: The case of benzodiazepines, not only do they have additive effects, barbiturates also increase the binding affinity of the benzodiazepine binding site, leading to exaggerated benzodiazepine effects. (ex. If a benzodiazepine increases the frequency of channel opening by 300%, and a barbiturate increases the duration of their opening by 300%, then the combined effects of the drugs increases the channels' overall function by 900%, not 600%). The longest-acting barbiturates have half-lives of

3195-592: The class possess relevant enzyme induction capabilities, the degree of induction overall as well as the impact on each specific enzyme span a broad range, with phenobarbital and secobarbital being the most potent enzyme inducers and butalbital and talbutal being among the weakest enzyme inducers in the class. People who are known to have killed themselves by barbiturate overdose include Stefan Zweig , Charles Boyer , Ruan Lingyu , Dalida , Jeannine Deckers , Felix Hausdorff , Abbie Hoffman , Phyllis Hyman , C. P. Ramanujam , George Sanders , Jean Seberg , Lupe Vélez and

3266-466: The consequences of barbiturate withdrawal (she was hospitalized with burns, the doctors treating her not being aware of her barbiturate addiction). The use of Barbiturates is contraindicated in the following conditions: Barbiturates act as positive allosteric modulators and, at higher doses, as agonists of GABA A receptors . GABA is the principal inhibitory neurotransmitter in the mammalian central nervous system (CNS). Barbiturates bind to

3337-569: The demand on the respiratory system, as well as maintaining blood pressure. Many soldiers returned with addictions that required several months of rehabilitation before discharge. This led to growing dependency problems, often exacerbated by indifferent physicians prescribing high doses to unknowing patients through the 1950s and 1960s. In the late 1950s and 1960s, an increasing number of published reports of barbiturate overdoses and dependence problems led physicians to reduce their prescription, particularly for spurious requests. This eventually led to

3408-403: The drug passes through the placenta to the fetus. After the baby is born, it may experience withdrawal symptoms and have trouble breathing. In addition, nursing mothers who take barbiturates may transmit the drug to their babies through breast milk. A rare adverse reaction to barbiturates is Stevens–Johnson syndrome , which primarily affects the mucous membranes. With regular use, tolerance to

3479-489: The duration of action. Examples of each class include: Indications for the use of barbiturates include: There are special risks to consider for older adults, and women who are pregnant. When a person ages, the body becomes less able to rid itself of barbiturates. As a result, people over the age of sixty-five are at higher risk of experiencing the harmful effects of barbiturates, including drug dependence and accidental overdose. When barbiturates are taken during pregnancy,

3550-640: The duration of chloride ion channel opening at the GABA A receptor (pharmacodynamics: This increases the efficacy of GABA), whereas benzodiazepines increase the frequency of the chloride ion channel opening at the GABA A receptor (pharmacodynamics: This increases the potency of GABA). The direct gating or opening of the chloride ion channel is the reason for the increased toxicity of barbiturates compared to benzodiazepines in overdose. Further, barbiturates are relatively non-selective compounds that bind to an entire superfamily of ligand-gated ion channels, of which

3621-448: The effects of barbiturates develops. Research shows tolerance can develop with even one administration of a barbiturate. As with all GABAergic drugs, barbiturate withdrawal produces potentially fatal effects such as seizures, in a manner reminiscent of delirium tremens and benzodiazepine withdrawal although its more direct mechanism of GABA agonism makes barbiturate withdrawal even more severe than that of alcohol or benzodiazepines. It

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3692-558: The federal government have used pentobarbital for lethal injections; some use three-drug protocols and others use pentobarbital alone. Pentobarbital is produced by the Danish company Lundbeck . Use of the drug for executions is illegal under Danish law, and when this was discovered, after public outcry in Danish media, Lundbeck stopped selling it to US states that impose the death penalty and prohibited US distributors to sell it to any customers, such as state authorities, that practice or participate in executions of humans. Texas began using

3763-460: The highest quality. From the late 1970s, and up through the 1980s, Lundbeck diverted its old agency business and thus became a dedicated pharmaceutical company focusing on the production of drugs used to treat disorders and diseases of the central nervous system . In 1989, Lundbeck launched the antidepressant Celexa ( citalopram ), which became the cornerstone for the company's international expansion and in 2009, Lundbeck, bought Ovation and established

3834-432: The influence of the drug. When dissolved in water, sodium amytal can be swallowed, or it can be administered by intravenous injection. The drug does not itself force people to tell the truth, but is thought to decrease inhibitions and slow creative thinking, making subjects more likely to be caught off guard when questioned, and increasing the possibility of the subject revealing information through emotional outbursts. Lying

3905-497: The latter are less toxic in drug overdose . However, barbiturates are still used as anticonvulsants (e.g., phenobarbital and primidone ) and general anesthetics (e.g., sodium thiopental ). Barbiturates in high doses are used for medical aid in dying , and in combination with a muscle relaxant for euthanasia and for capital punishment by lethal injection . Barbiturates are frequently employed as euthanizing agents in small-animal veterinary medicine . Sodium thiopental

3976-614: The members of Heaven's Gate cult. Others who have died as a result of barbiturate overdose include Pier Angeli , Brian Epstein , Judy Garland , Jimi Hendrix , Marilyn Monroe , Inger Stevens , Dinah Washington , Ellen Wilkinson , and Alan Wilson ; in some cases these have been speculated to be suicides as well. Those who died of a combination of barbiturates and other drugs include Rainer Werner Fassbinder , Dorothy Kilgallen , Malcolm Lowry , Edie Sedgwick and Kenneth Williams . Dorothy Dandridge died of either an overdose or an unrelated embolism . Ingeborg Bachmann may have died of

4047-465: The neuronal nAChR channel, in mediating some of the (side) effects of barbiturates. This is the mechanism responsible for the (mild to moderate) anesthetic effect of barbiturates in high doses when used in anesthetic concentration. Drug interactions with barbiturates are: Caution is needed in people using: Caution is also required in patients with: Barbituric acid was first synthesized 27 November 1864, by German chemist Adolf von Baeyer . This

4118-411: The new substance by amalgamating Barbara with urea . Another story holds that Baeyer synthesized the substance from the collected urine of a Munich waitress named Barbara. No substance of medical value was discovered, however, until 1903 when two German scientists working at Bayer , Emil Fischer and Joseph von Mering , discovered that barbital was very effective in putting dogs to sleep. Barbital

4189-774: The patients name, and have to contain the name and initials, address, city and telephone number of the licensed prescriber issuing the prescriptions, as well as the name and initials, address and city of the person the prescription is issued to). Among that group of drugs are the barbiturates amobarbital , butalbital , cyclobarbital , and pentobarbital . In the United States, the Controlled Substances Act of 1970 classified most barbiturates as controlled substances—and they remain so as of August 2023 . Barbital , methylphenobarbital (also known as mephobarbital ), and phenobarbital are designated schedule IV drugs, and "Any substance which contains any quantity of

4260-740: The plasma-bound concentrations of the drug. Users who consume alcohol or other sedatives after the drug's effects have worn off, but before it has cleared the system, may experience a greatly exaggerated effect from the other sedatives which can be incapacitating or even fatal. Barbiturates induce a number of hepatic CYP enzymes (most notably CYP2C9 , CYP2C19 , and CYP3A4 ), leading to exaggerated effects from many prodrugs and decreased effects from drugs which are metabolized by these enzymes to inactive metabolites. This can result in fatal overdoses from drugs such as codeine , tramadol , and carisoprodol , which become considerably more potent after being metabolized by CYP enzymes. Although all known members of

4331-478: The reliability of all information obtained through such methods into question. Nonetheless, it is still employed in certain circumstances by defense and law enforcement agencies as a "humane" alternative to torture interrogation when the subject is believed to have information critical to the security of the state or agency employing the tactic. In 1988, the synthesis and binding studies of an artificial receptor binding barbiturates by six complementary hydrogen bonds

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4402-881: The risks associated with such use. Barbiturates have largely been replaced by benzodiazepines and nonbenzodiazepines ("Z-drugs") in routine medical practice, particularly in the treatment of anxiety disorders and insomnia , because of the significantly lower risk of overdose, and the lack of an antidote for barbiturate overdose . Despite this, barbiturates are still in use for various purposes: in general anesthesia , epilepsy , treatment of acute migraines or cluster headaches , acute tension headaches , euthanasia , capital punishment , and assisted suicide . Barbiturates, such as phenobarbital , were long used as anxiolytics and hypnotics . Intermediate-acting barbiturates reduce time to fall asleep, increase total sleep time, and reduce REM sleep time. Today they have been largely replaced by benzodiazepines for these purposes because

4473-530: The scheduling of barbiturates as controlled drugs. In the Netherlands, the Opium Law classifies all barbiturates as List II drugs, with the exception of secobarbital , which is on List I . There is a small group of List II drugs for which physicians have to write the prescriptions according to the same, tougher guidelines as those for List I drugs (writing the prescription in full in letters, listing

4544-470: The single-drug pentobarbital protocol for executing death-row inmates on 18 July 2012, because of a shortage of pancuronium bromide , a muscle paralytic previously used as one component of a three-drug cocktail. In October 2013, Missouri changed its protocol to allow for pentobarbital from a compounding pharmacy to be used in a lethal dose for executions. It was first used in November 2013. According to

4615-481: The sodium salt shows better solubility. Pentobarbital is the INN , AAN , BAN , and USAN while pentobarbitone is a former AAN and BAN. One brand name for this drug is Nembutal , coined by John S. Lundy, who started using it in 1930, from the structural formula of the sodium salt —Na (sodium) + ethyl + methyl + butyl + al (common suffix for barbiturates ). Nembutal is trademarked and manufactured by

4686-404: Was done by condensing urea with diethyl malonate . There are several stories about how the substance got its name. The most likely story is that Baeyer and his colleagues went to celebrate their discovery in a tavern where the town's artillery garrison were also celebrating the feast of Saint Barbara  – the patron saint of artillerymen. An artillery officer is said to have christened

4757-562: Was implemented to restrict the use of the product in the US. Since 2012, US prisons have reported a serious shortage of Nembutal. On June 19, 2013, the European Commission imposed a fine of €93.8 million on Lundbeck and fined several producers of generic pharmaceuticals a total of €52.2 million after Lundbeck made agreements in 2002 with the other companies to delay less expensive generics of Lundbeck's citalopram from entering

4828-444: Was named the new CEO of Lundbeck. In September 2019, Lundbeck announced it would acquire Alder BioPharmaceuticals $ 18 per share, valuing Alder at almost $ 2 billion. In June 2023, Charl van Zyl, head of neurology solutions at UCB , has announced as the next CEO and President to succeed Dunsire. In October 2024, Lundbeck agreed to acquire American epilepsy drug maker Longboard Pharmaceuticals for $ 2.6 billion. Lundbeck markets

4899-430: Was published. Since this first article, different kind of receptors were designed, as well as different barbiturates and cyanurates , not for their efficiencies as drugs but for applications in supramolecular chemistry , in the conception of materials and molecular devices. The preferred IUPAC name of the base compound, barbituric acid, is 1,3-diazinane-2,4,6-trione. Different barbiturates have different substituents in

4970-601: Was signed in Vienna . Designed to regulate amphetamines , barbiturates, and other synthetics, the 34th version of the treaty , as of 25 January 2014 , regulates secobarbital as schedule II, amobarbital, butalbital, cyclobarbital, and pentobarbital as schedule III, and allobarbital , barbital , butobarbital , mephobarbital , phenobarbital , butabarbital , and vinylbital as schedule IV on its "Green List". The combination medication Fioricet , consisting of butalbital, caffeine, and paracetamol (acetaminophen), however,

5041-511: Was then marketed by Bayer under the trade name Veronal . It is said that Mering proposed this name because the most peaceful place he knew was the Italian city of Verona . In 1912, Bayer introduced another barbituric acid derivative, phenobarbital , under the trade name Luminal, as a sedative – hypnotic . It was not until the 1950s that the behavioral disturbances and physical dependence potential of barbiturates became recognized. Since

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