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50-476: The Nesher Ramla site was discovered in a karst depression following quarrying from a nearby cement factory. The site was excavated by archaeologists between 2010–2011 and yielded artefacts in archaeological deposits from the Middle Paleolithic that were reported by D. Friesem, Y. Zaidner, and R. Shahack-Gross. Evidence of a lithic industry was found during the excavation . The artefacts from

100-489: A 1918 publication, Cvijić proposed a cyclical model for karst landscape development. Karst hydrology emerged as a discipline in the late 1950s and the early 1960s in France. Previously, the activities of cave explorers, called speleologists , had been dismissed as more of a sport than a science and so the underground karst caves and their associated watercourses were, from a scientific perspective, understudied. Karst

150-535: A Neanderthal, and that the specimen itself should be classified as a Neanderthal. More than 6,000 stone tools were excavated in the fossil-bearing sediment of the site. The Nesher Ramla Homo population mastered stone tool production technologies previously known among Neanderthals and Homo sapiens . The team led by Zaidner interpreted the presence of this tool industry as evidence of cultural interactions between Nesher Ramla populations and Homo sapiens populations. Karst Karst ( / k ɑːr s t / )

200-613: A fellow of the Royal Society , London, introduced the word karst to European scholars in 1689 to describe the phenomenon of underground flows of rivers in his account of Lake Cerknica . Jovan Cvijić greatly advanced the knowledge of karst regions to the point where he became known as the "father of karst geomorphology". Primarily discussing the karst regions of the Balkans, Cvijić's 1893 publication Das Karstphänomen describes landforms such as karren, dolines and poljes . In

250-531: A major role in the formation of ancient Lechuguilla Cave in the US state of New Mexico and is presently active in the Frasassi Caves of Italy. The oxidation of sulfides leading to the formation of sulfuric acid can also be one of the corrosion factors in karst formation. As oxygen (O 2 )-rich surface waters seep into deep anoxic karst systems, they bring oxygen, which reacts with sulfide present in

300-478: A variety of spatial and temporal scales in karst regions, with the purpose of understanding karst aquifers and ecosystems, and the development of the surface and underground structure, so that the environment can be protected and human activities planned effectively. Karst Plateau (Italy-Slovenia) The Karst Plateau or the Karst region ( Slovene : Kras , Italian : Carso ), also locally called Karst ,

350-529: A well in a fracture trace or intersection of fracture traces increases the likelihood to encounter good water production. Voids in karst aquifers can be large enough to cause destructive collapse or subsidence of the ground surface that can initiate a catastrophic release of contaminants. Groundwater flow rate in karst aquifers is much more rapid than in porous aquifers. For example, in the Barton Springs Edwards aquifer, dye traces measured

400-624: Is a karst plateau region extending across the border of southwestern Slovenia and northeastern Italy . It lies between the Vipava Valley , the low hills surrounding the valley, the westernmost part of the Brkini Hills , northern Istria , and the Gulf of Trieste . The western edge of the plateau also marks the traditional ethnic border between Italians and Slovenes . The region gave its name to karst topography . For this reason, it

450-455: Is a topography formed from the dissolution of soluble carbonate rocks such as limestone and dolomite . It is characterized by features like poljes above and drainage systems with sinkholes and caves underground. There is some evidence that karst may occur in more weathering -resistant rocks such as quartzite given the right conditions. Subterranean drainage may limit surface water, with few to no rivers or lakes. In regions where

500-505: Is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Many karst-related terms derive from South Slavic languages , entering scientific vocabulary through early research in the Western Balkan Dinaric Alpine karst. The study of the various aspects of karst regions is called karstology. This includes biological, chemical, ecological, geomorphological, hydrogeological, hydrological, political, socio-economical, and other processes over

550-562: Is a development of karst observed in geological history and preserved within the rock sequence, effectively a fossil karst. There are for example palaeokarst surfaces exposed within the Clydach Valley Subgroup of the Carboniferous Limestone sequence of South Wales which developed as sub-aerial weathering of recently formed limestones took place during periods of non-deposition within the early part of

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600-538: Is a karst landscape which is developed beneath a cover of insoluble rocks. Typically this will involve a cover of sandstone overlying limestone strata undergoing solution. In the United Kingdom for example extensive doline fields have developed at Cefn yr Ystrad , Mynydd Llangatwg and Mynydd Llangynidr in South Wales across a cover of Twrch Sandstone which overlies concealed Carboniferous Limestone ,

650-787: Is a mixture of Mediterranean and Central European cuisine. The traditionally produced Karst prosciutto , a sort of dry-cured ham , is protected at the European level . Prominent persons that were born or lived in this region include the poets Srečko Kosovel , Igo Gruden , Ciril Zlobec , and Branka Jurca , social activist Danilo Dolci , architect Max Fabiani , painters Avgust Černigoj and Lojze Spacal , writers Alojz Rebula , Igor Torkar , and Bogomir Magajna , theologian Anton Mahnič , politicians Drago Marušič , Josip Ferfolja , and Majda Širca , economist Milko Brezigar , and actress Ita Rina . The picturesque Karst landscape inspired numerous artists who were not from this region, including

700-617: Is also referred to as the Classical Karst . The plateau rises quite steeply above the neighboring landscape, except for its northeastern side, where the steepness is less pronounced. The plateau gradually descends from the southeast to the southwest. On average it lies 334 m above sea level. Its western edge, known as the Karst Rim ( Slovene : Kraški rob ), is a continuation of the Učka mountain range in eastern Istria , and rises to

750-468: Is developed in areas where salt is undergoing solution underground. It can lead to surface depressions and collapses which present a geo-hazard. Karst areas tend to have unique types of forests. The karst terrain is difficult for humans to traverse, so that their ecosystems are often relatively undisturbed. The soil tends to have a high pH, which encourages growth of unusual species of orchids, palms, mangroves, and other plants. Paleokarst or palaeokarst

800-524: Is found in porous karst systems. The English word karst was borrowed from German Karst in the late 19th century, which entered German usage much earlier, to describe a number of geological, geomorphological, and hydrological features found within the range of the Dinaric Alps , stretching from the northeastern corner of Italy above the city of Trieste , across the Balkan peninsula along

850-636: Is frequently unseen until the roof of a cavern suddenly collapses. Such events have swallowed homes, cattle, cars, and farm machinery. In the United States, sudden collapse of such a cavern-sinkhole swallowed part of the collection of the National Corvette Museum in Bowling Green, Kentucky in 2014. The world's largest limestone karst is Australia's Nullarbor Plain . Slovenia has the world's highest risk of sinkholes, while

900-402: Is moderate to heavy. This contributes to rapid downward movement of groundwater, which promotes dissolution of the bedrock, whereas standing groundwater becomes saturated with carbonate minerals and ceases to dissolve the bedrock. The carbonic acid that causes karst features is formed as rain passes through Earth's atmosphere picking up carbon dioxide (CO 2 ), which readily dissolves in

950-428: Is most strongly developed in dense carbonate rock , such as limestone, that is thinly bedded and highly fractured . Karst is not typically well developed in chalk , because chalk is highly porous rather than dense, so the flow of groundwater is not concentrated along fractures. Karst is also most strongly developed where the water table is relatively low, such as in uplands with entrenched valleys , and where rainfall

1000-619: Is spoken. In the northern part (the northern part of the Municipality of Sežana, in the Slovenian municipalities of Komen and Miren-Kostanjevica , in the Italian municipalities of Sgonico , Duino-Aurisina and Doberdò del Lago , as well in some eastern suburbs of Trieste , like Barcola ), the Karst dialect is spoken. The Karst is renowned for its strong red wine , known as teran , prosciutto and its traditional cuisine, which

1050-476: The Neanderthals and East Asian Homo . Philip Rightmire of Harvard University did not agree with the findings, believing instead that properly, the skull should be categorised as among early Neanderthals. Rightmire also discussed the possibility of a Neanderthal population having migrated to the area from Europe . Yoel Rak of Tel Aviv University stated that the mandible bore characteristics typical of

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1100-427: The coast of the eastern Adriatic to Kosovo and North Macedonia , where the massif of the Šar Mountains begins. The karst zone is at the northwesternmost section, described in early topographical research as a plateau between Italy and Slovenia . Languages preserving this form include Italian : Carso , German : Karst , and Albanian : karsti . In the local South Slavic languages , all variations of

1150-450: The complexity of karst aquifers, and need to be supplemented with dye traces , measurement of spring discharges, and analysis of water chemistry. U.S. Geological Survey dye tracing has determined that conventional groundwater models that assume a uniform distribution of porosity are not applicable for karst aquifers. Linear alignment of surface features such as straight stream segments and sinkholes develop along fracture traces . Locating

1200-443: The dissolved bedrock is covered (perhaps by debris) or confined by one or more superimposed non-soluble rock strata, distinctive karst features may occur only at subsurface levels and can be totally missing above ground. The study of paleokarst (buried karst in the stratigraphic column ) is important in petroleum geology because as much as 50% of the world's hydrocarbon reserves are hosted in carbonate rock , and much of this

1250-643: The east and southeast of Trieste , ending in steep cliffs between Aurisina and Duino . Many interesting geological phenomena occur along the Karst Rim, including the picturesque Rosandra Valley (also known as Glinščica). Because the Karst steeply descends towards the Adriatic Sea , it is less exposed to the beneficial climatological effects of the Mediterranean . In the past, the main vegetation on

1300-557: The fissures. The enlarged fissures allow a larger quantity of water to enter which leads to a progressive enlargement of openings. Abundant small openings store a large quantity of water. The larger openings form a conduit system that drains the aquifer to springs. Characterization of karst aquifers requires field exploration to locate sinkholes, swallets , sinking streams , and springs in addition to studying geologic maps . Conventional hydrogeologic methods such as aquifer tests and potentiometric mapping are insufficient to characterize

1350-466: The global demand for drinkable water. Farming in karst areas must take into account the lack of surface water. The soils may be fertile enough, and rainfall may be adequate, but rainwater quickly moves through the crevices into the ground, sometimes leaving the surface soil parched between rains. The karst topography also poses peculiar difficulties for human inhabitants. Sinkholes can develop gradually as surface openings enlarge, but progressive erosion

1400-456: The karst groundwater flow rates from 0.5 to 7 miles per day (0.8 to 11.3 km/d). The rapid groundwater flow rates make karst aquifers much more sensitive to groundwater contamination than porous aquifers. Groundwater in karst areas is also just as easily polluted as surface streams, because Karst formations are cavernous and highly permeable, resulting in reduced opportunity for contaminant filtration. Well water may also be unsafe as

1450-562: The last-named locality having been declared a site of special scientific interest in respect of it. Kegelkarst is a type of tropical karst terrain with numerous cone-like hills, formed by cockpits, mogotes , and poljes and without strong fluvial erosion processes. This terrain is found in Cuba, Jamaica, Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Puerto Rico, southern China, Myanmar, Thailand, Laos and Vietnam. Salt karst (or 'halite karst')

1500-528: The main tourist centers in the area is Lipica , with its stud farm (the home of the Lipizzan horse breed) and other tourist facilities. The vast majority of the inhabitants of the Karst Plateau are ethnic Slovenes . Traditionally, only the villages of San Martino del Carso and Poggio-Sdraussina (in the municipality of Sagrado ) has been inhabited by Friulian speakers, the villages of Polazzo (in

1550-647: The most dramatic of these formations can be seen in Thailand 's Phangnga Bay and at Halong Bay in Vietnam . Calcium carbonate dissolved into water may precipitate out where the water discharges some of its dissolved carbon dioxide. Rivers which emerge from springs may produce tufa terraces, consisting of layers of calcite deposited over extended periods of time. In caves, a variety of features collectively called speleothems are formed by deposition of calcium carbonate and other dissolved minerals. Interstratal karst

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1600-459: The municipality of Fogliano-Redipuglia ), Vermegliano and Selz (in the municipality of Ronchi dei Legionari ) by Venetian speakers, and the town of Duino has been inhabited for long by a mixed population, while all the rest of the region was almost entirely Slovene-speaking from the Middle Ages until the end of World War I , after which some thousands Italians moved in the region while it

1650-709: The period. Sedimentation resumed and further limestone strata were deposited on an irregular karst surface, the cycle recurring several times in connection with fluctuating sea levels over prolonged periods. Pseudokarsts are similar in form or appearance to karst features but are created by different mechanisms. Examples include lava caves and granite tors —for example, Labertouche Cave in Victoria, Australia —and paleocollapse features. Mud Caves are an example of pseudokarst. Karst formations have unique hydrology, resulting in many unusual features. A karst fenster (karst window) occurs when an underground stream emerges onto

1700-482: The plateau was oaks , but these were replaced by pine forests in the 19th and 20th centuries. Forests now cover only one third of the Karst. Starting in the Middle Ages , the plateau suffered radical deforestation for economic reasons. Although it is often said that much of the wood for the closely spaced piles that support the island city of Venice came from this region, this is unlikely. Venice perhaps used

1750-495: The poets Rainer Maria Rilke , Alojz Gradnik , and Edvard Kocbek , essayists Scipio Slataper and Marjan Rožanc , writers Italo Svevo , Fulvio Tomizza , and Susanna Tamaro , and film director Jan Cvitkovič . Many artists and authors settled in the area, including Josip Osti and Taras Kermauner . Municipalities that are completely or partially in the Karst include: Historically, the region around Pivka , Postojna and Ilirska Bistrica also used to be considered as part of

1800-648: The region speak two closely related Slovene dialects , both belonging to the Littoral dialect group . In the southern part of the plateau (in the municipalities of Divača and Hrpelje-Kozina , and the southern part of the Municipality of Sežana , in the Italian municipality of Monrupino , and in most of the Slovene-speaking areas of the municipality of Trieste ), the Inner Carniolan dialect

1850-780: The river flows into a cave in a formation known as the Madison Limestone and then rises again 800 m ( 1 ⁄ 2  mi) down the canyon in a placid pool. A turlough is a unique type of seasonal lake found in Irish karst areas which are formed through the annual welling-up of water from the underground water system. Main Article Aquifer#Karst Karst aquifers typically develop in limestone . Surface water containing natural carbonic acid moves down into small fissures in limestone. This carbonic acid gradually dissolves limestone thereby enlarging

1900-490: The site contained Levallois tools and lithic cores . Later excavations led by anthropologist Israel Hershkovitz in 2021 led to the discovery of five pieces of a braincase and a nearly-complete lower jaw . The remains were dated to 140–120 kya , during the Middle Pleistocene. Hershkovitz speculated that the specimen might be categorised as among the last survivors of a population that would contribute to

1950-649: The surface between layers of rock, cascades some distance, and then disappears back down, often into a sinkhole. Rivers in karst areas may disappear underground a number of times and spring up again in different places, even under a different name, like Ljubljanica , the "river of seven names". Another example of this is the Popo Agie River in Fremont County, Wyoming , where, at a site named "The Sinks" in Sinks Canyon State Park ,

2000-415: The surface, complex underground drainage systems (such as karst aquifers ) and extensive caves and cavern systems may form. Erosion along limestone shores, notably in the tropics , produces karst topography that includes a sharp makatea surface above the normal reach of the sea, and undercuts that are mostly the result of biological activity or bioerosion at or a little above mean sea level . Some of

2050-1002: The system ( pyrite or hydrogen sulfide ) to form sulfuric acid (H 2 SO 4 ). Sulfuric acid then reacts with calcium carbonate, causing increased erosion within the limestone formation. This chain of reactions is: This reaction chain forms gypsum . The karstification of a landscape may result in a variety of large- or small-scale features both on the surface and beneath. On exposed surfaces, small features may include solution flutes (or rillenkarren), runnels , limestone pavement (clints and grikes), kamenitzas collectively called karren or lapiez. Medium-sized surface features may include sinkholes or cenotes (closed basins), vertical shafts, foibe (inverted funnel shaped sinkholes), disappearing streams, and reappearing springs . Large-scale features may include limestone pavements , poljes , and karst valleys. Mature karst landscapes, where more bedrock has been removed than remains, may result in karst towers , or haystack/eggbox landscapes. Beneath

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2100-438: The top of the northern rim of the plateau ; its houses are tightly clustered around Turn Hill, giving it the appearance of a medieval town. On the Italian side of the border, important settlements include Opicina , Duino , and Aurisina . Natural conditions, including the bora ( Slovene : burja ) wind, and the local way of life all shaped the elements of Karst architecture , creating simple but well-defined forms. One of

2150-461: The water may have run unimpeded from a sinkhole in a cattle pasture, bypassing the normal filtering that occurs in a porous aquifer . Sinkholes have often been used as farmstead or community trash dumps . Overloaded or malfunctioning septic tanks in karst landscapes may dump raw sewage directly into underground channels. Geologists are concerned with these negative effects of human activity on karst hydrology which, as of 2007 , supplied about 25% of

2200-417: The water. Once the rain reaches the ground, it may pass through soil that provides additional CO 2 produced by soil respiration . Some of the dissolved carbon dioxide reacts with the water to form a weak carbonic acid solution, which dissolves calcium carbonate . The primary reaction sequence in limestone dissolution is the following: In very rare conditions, oxidation can play a role. Oxidation played

2250-515: The western Highland Rim in the eastern United States is at the second-highest risk of karst sinkholes. In Canada, Wood Buffalo National Park , Northwest Territories contains areas of karst sinkholes. Mexico hosts important karst regions in the Yucatán Peninsula and Chiapas . The West of Ireland is home to The Burren , a karst limestone area. The South China Karst in the provinces of Guizhou , Guangxi , and Yunnan provinces

2300-604: The wood for naval timber. The most radical deforestation occurred in the first half of the nineteenth century due to clear-cutting by local farmers and conversion of the land into pastures for goats and sheep. The Karst is famous for its caves . In Slovenia, they include Vilenica Cave (the oldest show cave in Europe), Lipica Cave , Divača Cave , Kačna Cave , Postojna Cave , and Škocjan Caves (a UNESCO World Heritage Site ), and Grotta Gigante in Italy (the largest show cave in

2350-454: The word are derived from a Romanized Illyrian base (yielding Latin : carsus , Dalmatian : carsus ), later metathesized from the reconstructed form * korsъ into forms such as Slovene : kras and Serbo-Croatian : krš , kras , first attested in the 18th century, and the adjective form kraški in the 16th century. As a proper noun, the Slovene form Grast

2400-492: The world). Most of the Karst is located in the Slovenian Littoral , covering an area of 429 square kilometres, with a population of about 19,000 people. The Karst as a whole has exactly 100 settlements. The town of Sežana is the center of the region on the Slovene side of the border. The main rural centers are the settlements of Divača , Dutovlje , and Komen . Štanjel is a picturesque clustered settlement at

2450-467: Was entirely under Italy's sovereignty, and again from the late 1940s and during the 1950s, when Istrian Italians fleeing from Yugoslavia were settled in Karst villages in the Province of Trieste, especially in the municipality of Duino . As a consequence, today an estimated one fifth of the population of the Karst Plateau is Italian speaking, while the rest is mostly Slovene speaking. The Slovenes in

2500-589: Was first attested in 1177. Ultimately, the word is of Mediterranean origin. It has also been suggested that the word may derive from the Proto-Indo-European root karra- 'rock'. The name may also be connected to the oronym Kar(u)sádios oros cited by Ptolemy , and perhaps also to Latin Carusardius . Johann Weikhard von Valvasor , a pioneer of the study of karst in Slovenia and

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