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65-521: (Redirected from SP-3 ) SP3 may refer to: sp hybrids, a type of orbital hybridisation Sp3 transcription factor , a protein and the gene which encodes it Savoia-Pomilio SP.3 , a reconnaissance and bomber aircraft built in Italy USS ; Zipalong (SP-3) , an armed motorboat 1971 SP3 or 3922 Heather , a main-belt asteroid discovered on September 26, 1971 1984 SP3 or 3155 Lee ,
130-506: A solution space . The heuristic is derived by using some function that is put into the system by the designer, or by adjusting the weight of branches based on how likely each branch is to lead to a goal node . Heuristics refers to the cognitive shortcuts that individuals use to simplify decision-making processes in economic situations. Behavioral economics is a field that integrates insights from psychology and economics to better understand how people make decisions. Anchoring and adjustment
195-508: A tetrahedral arrangement around the carbon to bond to four different atoms. Hybrid orbitals are useful in the explanation of molecular geometry and atomic bonding properties and are symmetrically disposed in space. Usually hybrid orbitals are formed by mixing atomic orbitals of comparable energies. Chemist Linus Pauling first developed the hybridisation theory in 1931 to explain the structure of simple molecules such as methane (CH 4 ) using atomic orbitals . Pauling pointed out that
260-466: A text that Polya dubs Heuristic . Pappus' heuristic problem-solving methods consist of analysis and synthesis . The study of heuristics in human decision-making was developed in the 1970s and the 1980s, by the psychologists Amos Tversky and Daniel Kahneman , although the concept had been originally introduced by the Nobel laureate Herbert A. Simon . Simon's original primary object of research
325-430: A carbon atom forms four bonds by using one s and three p orbitals, so that "it might be inferred" that a carbon atom would form three bonds at right angles (using p orbitals) and a fourth weaker bond using the s orbital in some arbitrary direction. In reality, methane has four C–H bonds of equivalent strength. The angle between any two bonds is the tetrahedral bond angle of 109°28' (around 109.5°). Pauling supposed that in
390-466: A cognitive style "heuristic versus algorithmic thinking", which can be assessed by means of a validated questionnaire . The adaptive toolbox contains strategies for fabricating heuristic devices. The core mental capacities are recall (memory) , frequency , object permanence , and imitation . Gerd Gigerenzer and his research group argued that models of heuristics need to be formal to allow for predictions of behavior that can be tested. They study
455-405: A larger experiential processing system that is often adaptive, but vulnerable to error in situations that require logical analysis. In 2002, Daniel Kahneman and Shane Frederick proposed that cognitive heuristics work by a process called attribute substitution , which happens without conscious awareness. According to this theory, when somebody makes a judgement (of a "target attribute") that
520-1792: A localized orbital theory containing modernized analogs of classical (valence bond/Lewis structure) bonding pairs and lone pairs. For the hydrogen fluoride molecule, for example, two F lone pairs are essentially unhybridized p orbitals, while the other is an sp hybrid orbital. An analogous consideration applies to water (one O lone pair is in a pure p orbital, another is in an sp hybrid orbital). Heuristic Collective intelligence Collective action Self-organized criticality Herd mentality Phase transition Agent-based modelling Synchronization Ant colony optimization Particle swarm optimization Swarm behaviour Social network analysis Small-world networks Centrality Motifs Graph theory Scaling Robustness Systems biology Dynamic networks Evolutionary computation Genetic algorithms Genetic programming Artificial life Machine learning Evolutionary developmental biology Artificial intelligence Evolutionary robotics Reaction–diffusion systems Partial differential equations Dissipative structures Percolation Cellular automata Spatial ecology Self-replication Conversation theory Entropy Feedback Goal-oriented Homeostasis Information theory Operationalization Second-order cybernetics Self-reference System dynamics Systems science Systems thinking Sensemaking Variety Ordinary differential equations Phase space Attractors Population dynamics Chaos Multistability Bifurcation Rational choice theory Bounded rationality A heuristic or heuristic technique ( problem solving , mental shortcut , rule of thumb )
585-459: A low d electron count , the p-orbitals are unoccupied and sd hybridisation is used to model the shape of these molecules. In some general chemistry textbooks, hybridization is presented for main group coordination number 5 and above using an "expanded octet" scheme with d-orbitals first proposed by Pauling. However, such a scheme is now considered to be incorrect in light of computational chemistry calculations. In 1990, Eric Alfred Magnusson of
650-568: A main-belt asteroid discovered on September 28, 1984 SP3, a model of steam toy made by British manufacturer Mamod Service pack 3 , for computer software Socket SP3 , a CPU socket for AMD processors SP3, a sink in the Sima Pumacocha , a cave in Peru Surface Pro 3 , a 2-in-1 personal computer by Microsoft [REDACTED] Topics referred to by the same term This disambiguation page lists articles associated with
715-411: A mental shortcut to assess everything from the social status of a person (based on their actions), to classifying a plant as a tree based on it being tall, having a trunk, and that it has leaves (even though the person making the evaluation might never have seen that particular type of tree before). Stereotypes, as first described by journalist Walter Lippmann in his book Public Opinion (1922), are
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#1732780651322780-423: A quantitative depiction of the bond formation when the molecular geometry deviates from ideal bond angles. The amount of p-character is not restricted to integer values; i.e., hybridizations like sp are also readily described. The hybridization of bond orbitals is determined by Bent's rule : "Atomic s character concentrates in orbitals directed towards electropositive substituents". For molecules with lone pairs,
845-460: A similar way. For example, ethene (C 2 H 4 ) has a double bond between the carbons. For this molecule, carbon sp hybridises, because one π (pi) bond is required for the double bond between the carbons and only three σ bonds are formed per carbon atom. In sp hybridisation the 2s orbital is mixed with only two of the three available 2p orbitals, usually denoted 2p x and 2p y . The third 2p orbital (2p z ) remains unhybridised. forming
910-541: A total of three sp orbitals with one remaining p orbital. In ethene, the two carbon atoms form a σ bond by overlapping one sp orbital from each carbon atom. The π bond between the carbon atoms perpendicular to the molecular plane is formed by 2p–2p overlap. Each carbon atom forms covalent C–H bonds with two hydrogens by s–sp overlap, all with 120° bond angles. The hydrogen–carbon bonds are all of equal strength and length, in agreement with experimental data. The chemical bonding in compounds such as alkynes with triple bonds
975-431: Is about 102° which implies the presence of some orbital hybridisation. The carbon atom can also bond to four hydrogen atoms in methane by an excitation (or promotion) of an electron from the doubly occupied 2s orbital to the empty 2p orbital, producing four singly occupied orbitals. The energy released by the formation of two additional bonds more than compensates for the excitation energy required, energetically favoring
1040-405: Is also often used as a noun to describe a rule of thumb , procedure, or method. Philosophers of science have emphasised the importance of heuristics in creative thought and the construction of scientific theories. Seminal works include Karl Popper 's The Logic of Scientific Discovery and others by Imre Lakatos , Lindley Darden , and William C. Wimsatt . In legal theory , especially in
1105-419: Is any approach to problem solving that employs a pragmatic method that is not fully optimized , perfected, or rationalized , but is nevertheless "good enough" as an approximation or attribute substitution . Where finding an optimal solution is impossible or impractical, heuristic methods can be used to speed up the process of finding a satisfactory solution. Heuristics can be mental shortcuts that ease
1170-530: Is based on the key term: Justification (epistemology) . One-reason decisions are algorithms that are made of three rules: search rules, confirmation rules (stopping), and decision rules A class that's function is to determine and filter out superfluous things. Tracking heuristics is a class of heuristics. Social heuristics – Decision-making processes in social environments George Polya studied and published on heuristics in 1945. Polya (1945) cites Pappus of Alexandria as having written
1235-421: Is computationally complex, a more easily calculated "heuristic attribute" is substituted. In effect, a cognitively difficult problem is dealt with by answering a rather simpler problem, without being aware of this happening. This theory explains cases where judgements fail to show regression toward the mean . Heuristics can be considered to reduce the complexity of clinical judgments in health care. A heuristic
1300-545: Is decided mainly by orbital hybridisation, can be used to reliably predict molecular properties such as acidity or basicity. Orbitals are a model representation of the behavior of electrons within molecules. In the case of simple hybridization, this approximation is based on atomic orbitals , similar to those obtained for the hydrogen atom, the only neutral atom for which the Schrödinger equation can be solved exactly. In heavier atoms, such as carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen,
1365-484: Is explained by sp hybridization. In this model, the 2s orbital is mixed with only one of the three p orbitals, resulting in two sp orbitals and two remaining p orbitals. The chemical bonding in acetylene (ethyne) (C 2 H 2 ) consists of sp–sp overlap between the two carbon atoms forming a σ bond and two additional π bonds formed by p–p overlap. Each carbon also bonds to hydrogen in a σ s–sp overlap at 180° angles. Hybridisation helps to explain molecule shape , since
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#17327806513221430-403: Is one of the most extensively researched heuristics in behavioural economics. Anchoring is the tendency of people to make future judgements or conclusions based too heavily on the original information supplied to them. This initial knowledge functions as an anchor, and it can influence future judgements even if the anchor is entirely unrelated to the decisions at hand. Adjustment, on the other hand,
1495-464: Is stored in the memory . Heuristics are inherently phenomenological, e.g., I and Thou . A heuristic device is used when an entity X exists to enable understanding of, or knowledge concerning, some other entity Y . A good example is a model that, as it is never identical with what it models , is a heuristic device to enable understanding of what it models. Stories, metaphors, etc., can also be termed heuristic in this sense. A classic example
1560-452: Is sufficiently mature for society to trust them with that kind of responsibility. Some proposed changes, however, have included the completion of an alcohol education course rather than the attainment of 21 years of age as the criterion for legal alcohol possession. This would put youth alcohol policy more on a case-by-case basis and less on a heuristic one, since the completion of such a course would presumably be voluntary and not uniform across
1625-440: Is that it incorrectly predicts the ultraviolet photoelectron spectra of many molecules. While this is true if Koopmans' theorem is applied to localized hybrids, quantum mechanics requires that the (in this case ionized) wavefunction obey the symmetry of the molecule which implies resonance in valence bond theory. For example, in methane, the ionised states (CH 4 ) can be constructed out of four resonance structures attributing
1690-411: Is the concept of mixing atomic orbitals to form new hybrid orbitals (with different energies, shapes, etc., than the component atomic orbitals) suitable for the pairing of electrons to form chemical bonds in valence bond theory . For example, in a carbon atom which forms four single bonds, the valence-shell s orbital combines with three valence-shell p orbitals to form four equivalent sp mixtures in
1755-576: Is the notion of utopia as described in Plato 's best-known work, The Republic . This means that the "ideal city" as depicted in The Republic is not given as something to be pursued, or to present an orientation-point for development. Rather, it shows how things would have to be connected, and how one thing would lead to another (often with highly problematic results), if one opted for certain principles and carried them through rigorously. Heuristic
1820-625: Is the process through which individuals make gradual changes to their initial judgements or conclusions. Anchoring and adjustment has been observed in a wide range of decision-making contexts, including financial decision-making, consumer behavior, and negotiation. Researchers have identified a number of strategies that can be used to mitigate the effects of anchoring and adjustment, including providing multiple anchors, encouraging individuals to generate alternative anchors, and providing cognitive prompts to encourage more deliberative decision-making. Other heuristics studied in behavioral economics include
1885-926: Is trial and error, which can be used in everything from matching nuts and bolts to finding the values of variables in algebra problems. In mathematics, some common heuristics involve the use of visual representations, additional assumptions, forward/backward reasoning and simplification. Dual process theory concerns embodied heuristics . In psychology , heuristics are simple, efficient rules, either learned or inculcated by evolutionary processes. These psychological heuristics have been proposed to explain how people make decisions, come to judgements, and solve problems. These rules typically come into play when people face complex problems or incomplete information. Researchers employ various methods to test whether people use these rules. The rules have been shown to work well under most circumstances, but in certain cases can lead to systematic errors or cognitive biases . Lakatosian heuristics
1950-570: Is under uncertainty, heuristics can achieve higher accuracy with lower effort. This finding, known as a less-is-more effect , would not have been found without formal models. The valuable insight of this program is that heuristics are effective not despite their simplicity – but because of it. Furthermore, Gigerenzer and Wolfgang Gaissmaier found that both individuals and organisations rely on heuristics in an adaptive way. Heuristics, through greater refinement and research, have begun to be applied to other theories, or be explained by them. For example,
2015-512: Is used to model the shape of these molecules. As the valence orbitals of transition metals are the five d, one s and three p orbitals with the corresponding 18-electron rule , sp d hybridisation is used to model the shape of these molecules. These molecules tend to have multiple shapes corresponding to the same hybridization due to the different d-orbitals involved. A square planar complex has one unoccupied p-orbital and hence has 16 valence electrons. In certain transition metal complexes with
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2080-493: The University of New South Wales published a paper definitively excluding the role of d-orbital hybridisation in bonding in hypervalent compounds of second-row ( period 3 ) elements, ending a point of contention and confusion. Part of the confusion originates from the fact that d-functions are essential in the basis sets used to describe these compounds (or else unreasonably high energies and distorted geometries result). Also,
2145-405: The anchoring effect and utility maximization problem . These strategies depend on using readily accessible, though loosely applicable, information to control problem solving in human beings, machines and abstract issues. When an individual applies a heuristic in practice, it generally performs as expected. However it can alternatively create systematic errors. The most fundamental heuristic
2210-440: The cognitive load of making a decision . Heuristic reasoning is often based on induction , or on analogy ... Induction is the process of discovering general laws ... Induction tries to find regularity and coherence ... Its most conspicuous instruments are generalization , specialization , analogy. [...] Heuristic discusses human behavior in the face of problems [... that have been] preserved in
2275-442: The cognitive-experiential self-theory (CEST) is also an adaptive view of heuristic processing. CEST breaks down two systems that process information. At some times, roughly speaking, individuals consider issues rationally, systematically, logically, deliberately, effortfully, and verbally. On other occasions, individuals consider issues intuitively, effortlessly, globally, and emotionally. From this perspective, heuristics are part of
2340-412: The electron density associated with an orbital is proportional to the square of the wavefunction, the ratio of p-character to s-character is λ = 3. The p character or the weight of the p component is N λ = 3/4. Hybridisation describes the bonding of atoms from an atom's point of view. For a tetrahedrally coordinated carbon (e.g., methane CH 4 ), the carbon should have 4 orbitals directed towards
2405-520: The octet rule . While the simple model of orbital hybridisation is commonly used to explain molecular shape, hybridisation is used differently when computed in modern valence bond programs. Specifically, hybridisation is not determined a priori but is instead variationally optimized to find the lowest energy solution and then reported. This means that all artificial constraints, specifically two constraints, on orbital hybridisation are lifted: This means that in practice, hybrid orbitals do not conform to
2470-426: The recognition heuristic , the take-the-best heuristic and fast-and-frugal trees – have been shown to be effective in predictions, particularly in situations of uncertainty. It is often said that heuristics trade accuracy for effort but this is only the case in situations of risk. Risk refers to situations where all possible actions, their outcomes and probabilities are known. In the absence of this information, that
2535-472: The representativeness heuristic , which refers to the tendency of individuals to categorize objects or events based on how similar they are to typical examples, and the availability heuristic , which refers to the tendency of individuals to judge the likelihood of an event based on how easily it comes to mind. Stereotyping is a type of heuristic that people use to form opinions or make judgements about things they have never seen or experienced. They work as
2600-500: The wisdom of proverbs . Gigerenzer & Gaissmaier (2011) state that sub-sets of strategy include heuristics , regression analysis , and Bayesian inference . A heuristic is a strategy that ignores part of the information, with the goal of making decisions more quickly, frugally, and/or accurately than more complex methods (Gigerenzer and Gaissmaier [2011], p. 454; see also Todd et al. [2012], p. 7). Heuristics are strategies based on rules to generate optimal decisions , like
2665-438: The 4 hydrogen atoms. Carbon's ground state configuration is 1s 2s 2p or more easily read: This diagram suggests that the carbon atom could use its two singly occupied p-type orbitals to form two covalent bonds with two hydrogen atoms in a methylene (CH 2 ) molecule, with a hypothetical bond angle of 90° corresponding to the angle between two p orbitals on the same atom. However the true H–C–H angle in singlet methylene
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2730-520: The United States the legal drinking age for unsupervised persons is 21 years, because it is argued that people need to be mature enough to make decisions involving the risks of alcohol consumption. However, assuming people mature at different rates, the specific age of 21 would be too late for some and too early for others. In this case, the somewhat arbitrary delineation is used because it is impossible or impractical to tell whether an individual
2795-405: The United States, the length of this temporary monopoly is 20 years from the date the patent application was filed, though the monopoly does not actually begin until the application has matured into a patent. However, like the drinking age problem above, the specific length of time would need to be different for every product to be efficient. A 20-year term is used because it is difficult to tell what
2860-430: The angles between bonds are approximately equal to the angles between hybrid orbitals. This is in contrast to valence shell electron-pair repulsion (VSEPR) theory , which can be used to predict molecular geometry based on empirical rules rather than on valence-bond or orbital theories. As the valence orbitals of main group elements are the one s and three p orbitals with the corresponding octet rule , sp hybridization
2925-487: The atomic orbitals used are the 2s and 2p orbitals, similar to excited state orbitals for hydrogen. Hybrid orbitals are assumed to be mixtures of atomic orbitals, superimposed on each other in various proportions. For example, in methane , the C hybrid orbital which forms each carbon – hydrogen bond consists of 25% s character and 75% p character and is thus described as sp (read as s-p-three ) hybridised. Quantum mechanics describes this hybrid as an sp wavefunction of
2990-606: The bonding orbitals are isovalent sp hybrids. For example, the two bond-forming hybrid orbitals of oxygen in water can be described as sp to give the interorbital angle of 104.5°. This means that they have 20% s character and 80% p character and does not imply that a hybrid orbital is formed from one s and four p orbitals on oxygen since the 2p subshell of oxygen only contains three p orbitals. Hybridisation of s and p orbitals to form effective sp hybrids requires that they have comparable radial extent. While 2p orbitals are on average less than 10% larger than 2s, in part attributable to
3055-458: The calculated p/s ratio is approximately 3 consistent with "ideal" sp hybridisation, whereas for silane , SiH 4 , the p/s ratio is closer to 2. A similar trend is seen for the other 2p elements. Substitution of fluorine for hydrogen further decreases the p/s ratio. The 2p elements exhibit near ideal hybridisation with orthogonal hybrid orbitals. For heavier p block elements this assumption of orthogonality cannot be justified. These deviations from
3120-418: The contribution of the d-function to the molecular wavefunction is large. These facts were incorrectly interpreted to mean that d-orbitals must be involved in bonding. In light of computational chemistry , a better treatment would be to invoke sigma bond resonance in addition to hybridisation, which implies that each resonance structure has its own hybridisation scheme. All resonance structures must obey
3185-406: The delocalized orbitals of molecular orbital theory by an appropriate mathematical transformation. For molecules in the ground state, this transformation of the orbitals leaves the total many-electron wave function unchanged. The hybrid orbital description of the ground state is, therefore equivalent to the delocalized orbital description for ground state total energy and electron density, as well as
3250-500: The ejected electron to each of the four sp orbitals. A linear combination of these four structures, conserving the number of structures, leads to a triply degenerate T 2 state and an A 1 state. The difference in energy between each ionized state and the ground state would be ionization energy , which yields two values in agreement with experimental results. Bonding orbitals formed from hybrid atomic orbitals may be considered as localized molecular orbitals, which can be formed from
3315-446: The fast and frugal heuristics in the "adaptive toolbox" of individuals or institutions, and the ecological rationality of these heuristics; that is, the conditions under which a given heuristic is likely to be successful. The descriptive study of the "adaptive toolbox" is done by observation and experiment, while the prescriptive study of ecological rationality requires mathematical analysis and computer simulation. Heuristics – such as
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#17327806513223380-459: The form N ( s + 3 p σ ) {\displaystyle N(s+{\sqrt {3}}p\sigma )} , where N is a normalisation constant (here 1/2) and pσ is a p orbital directed along the C-H axis to form a sigma bond . The ratio of coefficients (denoted λ in general) is 3 {\displaystyle \color {blue}{\sqrt {3}}} in this example. Since
3445-709: The formation of four C-H bonds. According to quantum mechanics the lowest energy is obtained if the four bonds are equivalent, which requires that they are formed from equivalent orbitals on the carbon. A set of four equivalent orbitals can be obtained that are linear combinations of the valence-shell (core orbitals are almost never involved in bonding) s and p wave functions, which are the four sp hybrids. In CH 4 , four sp hybrid orbitals are overlapped by hydrogen 1s orbitals, yielding four σ (sigma) bonds (that is, four single covalent bonds) of equal length and strength. The following : translates into : Other carbon compounds and other molecules may be explained in
3510-464: The ideal hybridisation were termed hybridisation defects by Kutzelnigg . However, computational VB groups such as Gerratt, Cooper and Raimondi (SCVB) as well as Shaik and Hiberty (VBSCF) go a step further to argue that even for model molecules such as methane, ethylene and acetylene, the hybrid orbitals are already defective and nonorthogonal, with hybridisations such as sp instead of sp for methane. One misconception concerning orbital hybridization
3575-420: The lack of a radial node in 2p orbitals, 3p orbitals which have one radial node, exceed the 3s orbitals by 20–33%. The difference in extent of s and p orbitals increases further down a group. The hybridisation of atoms in chemical bonds can be analysed by considering localised molecular orbitals, for example using natural localised molecular orbitals in a natural bond orbital (NBO) scheme. In methane , CH 4 ,
3640-410: The molecular geometry that corresponds to the minimum total energy value. Molecules with multiple bonds or multiple lone pairs can have orbitals represented in terms of sigma and pi symmetry or equivalent orbitals. Different valence bond methods use either of the two representations, which have mathematically equivalent total many-electron wave functions and are related by a unitary transformation of
3705-447: The number should be for any individual patent. More recently, some, including University of North Dakota law professor Eric E. Johnson, have argued that patents in different kinds of industries – such as software patents – should be protected for different lengths of time. The bias–variance tradeoff gives insight into describing the less-is-more strategy. A heuristic can be used in artificial intelligence systems while searching
3770-399: The population. The same reasoning applies to patent law . Patents are justified on the grounds that inventors must be protected so they have incentive to invent. It is therefore argued that it is in society's best interest that inventors receive a temporary government-granted monopoly on their idea, so that they can recoup investment costs and make economic profit for a limited period. In
3835-411: The presence of four hydrogen atoms, the s and p orbitals form four equivalent combinations which he called hybrid orbitals. Each hybrid is denoted sp to indicate its composition, and is directed along one of the four C–H bonds. This concept was developed for such simple chemical systems, but the approach was later applied more widely, and today it is considered an effective heuristic for rationalizing
3900-570: The same title formed as a letter–number combination. If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended article. Retrieved from " https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=SP3&oldid=910772959 " Category : Letter–number combination disambiguation pages Hidden categories: Short description is different from Wikidata All article disambiguation pages All disambiguation pages Orbital hybridisation In chemistry , orbital hybridisation (or hybridization )
3965-402: The set of occupied molecular orbitals. For multiple bonds, the sigma-pi representation is the predominant one compared to the equivalent orbital ( bent bond ) representation. In contrast, for multiple lone pairs, most textbooks use the equivalent orbital representation. However, the sigma-pi representation is also used, such as by Weinhold and Landis within the context of natural bond orbitals ,
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#17327806513224030-423: The simple ideas commonly taught and thus in scientific computational papers are simply referred to as sp , sp d or sd hybrids to express their nature instead of more specific integer values. Although ideal hybrid orbitals can be useful, in reality, most bonds require orbitals of intermediate character. This requires an extension to include flexible weightings of atomic orbitals of each type (s, p, d) and allows for
4095-465: The structures of organic compounds . It gives a simple orbital picture equivalent to Lewis structures . Hybridisation theory is an integral part of organic chemistry , one of the most compelling examples being Baldwin's rules . For drawing reaction mechanisms sometimes a classical bonding picture is needed with two atoms sharing two electrons. Hybridisation theory explains bonding in alkenes and methane. The amount of p character or s character, which
4160-438: The theory of law and economics , heuristics are used in the law when case-by-case analysis would be impractical, insofar as "practicality" is defined by the interests of a governing body. The present securities regulation regime largely assumes that all investors act as perfectly rational persons. In truth, actual investors face cognitive limitations from biases, heuristics, and framing effects. For instance, in all states in
4225-475: Was problem solving that showed that we operate within what he calls bounded rationality . He coined the term satisficing , which denotes a situation in which people seek solutions, or accept choices or judgements, that are "good enough" for their purposes although they could be optimised. Rudolf Groner analysed the history of heuristics from its roots in ancient Greece up to contemporary work in cognitive psychology and artificial intelligence , proposing
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