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47-511: Left: Slave labor camp for condemned Jewish prisoners. Centre: Supply road with two gates, north and south. Right: Training compound for the Hiwi shooters around the military training plaza ( handwritten ① with red arrow ). north of the former sugar refinery with kitchen ( hand-coloured in brown ). German SS quarters with infirmary and storeroom ( hand-coloured in red ). Commandant's house ( [lower down] ). From

94-950: A constant problem for the battalions. For example, some 3,000 men deserted Lithuanian Schutzmannschaft between September 1943 and April 1944. After the war, many former members of Schutzmannschaft fled to the West. A survey of about 200 men revealed that more than 30% had escaped from the Soviet zone. Western authorities showed much less interest in members of Schutzmannschaft than in German Nazis and did not prosecute them. Soviet Union persecuted members of Schutzmannschaft , often sentencing them to death. For example, in Lithuania, 14 men were sentenced to 25 years in Gulag in 1948, 8 men were sentenced to death in 1962, one man executed in 1979. After

141-498: A gap between Nazi ideologues and pragmatic German Army commanders. Nazi leaders including Adolf Hitler regarded all Slavs as Untermenschen and therefore of limited value as volunteers also. On the other hand, the manpower was needed, and German Intelligence had recognised the need to divide the Soviet nationals. The contradiction was sometimes disguised by reclassification of Slavs as Cossacks . Colonel Helmuth Groscurth ( XI Corps ' Chief of Staff ) wrote to General Beck : "It

188-555: A genuine desire to volunteer, and seeming to volunteer in the hope of a better chance of surviving the war. A captured Hiwi told his NKVD interrogators: Russians in the German Army can be divided into three categories. Firstly, soldiers mobilized by German troops, so-called Cossack sections, which are attached to German divisions. Secondly, Hilfswillige [Voluntary Assistants] made up of local people or Russian prisoners who volunteer, or those Red Army soldiers who desert to join

235-907: A passenger train to Trawniki, but most left the train in Maków Podhalański once already sober. Only twelve men arrived in Trawniki. At the first opportunity they got into a major fistfight with the Ukrainians, causing havoc. They were arrested and sent away. The whole idea was abandoned as impossible by SS-Obergruppenführer Krüger in occupied Kraków by an official letter of April 5, 1943. The failure probably contributed to his dismissal on November 9, 1943, by Governor General Hans Frank . Krüger committed suicide in upper Austria two years later. 51°08′21″N 22°59′35″E  /  51.139267°N 22.993140°E  / 51.139267; 22.993140 Hiwi (volunteer) Hiwis comprised 50% of

282-460: A projected number of four companies of 124 men each, one with a group of machine gun and three groups of infantry . In reality, the numbers varied greatly between occupied territories. Baltic (Lithuanian, Latvian, Estonian) battalions were commanded by a native, while Ukrainian and Belarusian battalions had German commanders. The battalions did not have a prescribed uniform and often used uniforms from pre-war national armies. They were identified by

329-600: A small fraction of local auxiliaries were armed. Due to limited supervision, particularly in rural areas, members of Schutzmannschaften had considerable power and there were frequent complaints of corruption and abuse. Initially, Schutzmannschaften was organized based on existing police structures and spontaneous anti-Soviet groups that formed at the start of the German invasion of the Soviet Union . For example, in Lithuania, Schutzmannschaften absorbed units formed by

376-425: A thoroughly negative meaning during World War II when it entered into several other languages in reference to Ostlegionen as well as volunteers enlisted from occupied territories for service in a number of roles including hands-on shooting actions and guard duties at extermination camps on top of regular military service, drivers, cooks, hospital attendants, ammunition carriers, messengers, sappers , etc. In

423-642: A variety of reasons. A number of them had prior police or military experience and wanted a job which paid steady wages and provided food rations. Joining the German war apparatus also provided certain privileges and protections for the men and their families (for example, exemption from forced labor ). Pensions were available to family members of those killed in anti-partisan operations. Others were motivated by ideological reasons (antisemitism, anticommunism , nationalism) or by opportunities to loot property of murdered Jews. Captured Soviet POWs saw Schutzmannschaften as

470-438: A way to avoid concentration camps. Such considerations attracted criminals and other opportunists. Most of them were young: in 1944, about half of Schutzmannschaften near Mir were under 25 years of age. Germans complained about their lack of training, discipline, and in some cases refused to supply them with weapons. During 1942, in compliance with orders to enlarge Schutzmannschaft , Germans began to force men to sign up for

517-652: A white armband which usually had the inscription Schutzmann , a service number and location. In Directive no. 46 , Hitler expressly prohibited Schutzmannschaft to use German badges of rank , the eagle and swastika emblem, or German military shoulder straps. However, members of Schutzmannschaften were eligible for various awards and decorations, including the Iron Cross and War Merit Cross . Schutzmannschaften were generally armed with confiscated Soviet rifles and some officers had pistols. Machine guns were used in anti-partisan operations and mortars were employed in

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564-401: Is disturbing that we are forced to strengthen our fighting troops with Russian prisoners of war, who are already being turned into gunners. It's an odd state of affairs that the "Beasts" we have been fighting against are now living with us in closest harmony." The Hiwis may have constituted one quarter of 6th Army 's front-line strength, amounting to over 50,000 Slavic auxiliaries serving with

611-586: The 2nd Panzer Army 's 134th Infantry Division in late 1942, while the 6th Army at the Battle of Stalingrad was composed of 25% Hiwis. By 1944, their numbers had grown to 600,000. Both men and women were recruited. Veteran Hiwis were practically indistinguishable from regular German troops, and often served in entire company strengths. Between September 1941 and July 1944 the SS employed thousands of collaborationist auxiliary police recruited as Hiwis directly from

658-537: The Eastern Front and manpower shortages forced Germans to reconsider. Therefore, on 25 July 1941, Reichsführer-SS Himmler authorized creation of Schutzmannschaft . Initially, it was called Hilfspolizei , but Germans did not want to attach a reputable police title to this force. Schutzmannschaften was an integral part of German police structure and dealt with variety of issues, including everyday crimes (except when concerning German citizens). Initially, only

705-679: The Provisional Government . Due to this legacy and its semi-military status, Lithuanians associated police battalions with their national aspirations of independent Lithuania. This caused a rift within German ranks: ideologues like Hitler and Himmler saw no place for Baltic nationalism within the Greater Germanic Reich , but the Nazis needed local collaboration and had to maintain at least a shadow of national institutions. Local men joined Schutzmannschaften due to

752-550: The Schutzmannschaft on 25 July 1941, and subordinated it to the Order Police ( Ordnungspolizei ; Orpo). By the end of 1941, some 45,000 men served in Schutzmannschaft units, about half of them in the battalions. During 1942, Schutzmannschaften expanded to an estimated 300,000 men, with battalions accounting for about a third, or less than one half of the local force. Everywhere, local police far outnumbered

799-582: The outbreak of war with the Soviet Union, intended to hold Soviet POWs, with rail lines in all major directions in the General Government territory. Between 1941 and 1944, the camp expanded into an SS training camp for collaborationist auxiliary police , mainly Ukrainian. In 1942, it became the forced-labor camp for thousands of Jews within the Majdanek concentration camp system as well. The Jewish inmates of Trawniki provided slave labour for

846-500: The " Trawniki men " ( German : Trawnikimänner ) and were former Soviet citizens, mostly Ukrainians . Trawnikis were sent to all major killing sites of the " Final Solution ", which was their training's primary purpose. They took an active role in the executions of Jews at Bełżec , Sobibor , Treblinka II , Warsaw (three times), Częstochowa , Lublin , Lvov , Radom , Kraków , Białystok (twice), Majdanek as well as Auschwitz , and Trawniki itself. The term 'Hiwis' acquired

893-589: The German Vernichtungskrieg (war of annihilation) policy in mind. For example, volunteering allowed Soviet POWs to get out of the barbaric German POW camp system , giving them a much higher chance of survival. During World War II, Nazi Germany engaged in a policy of deliberate maltreatment of Soviet POWs, in contrast to their treatment of British and American POWs. This resulted in some 3.3 to 3.5 million deaths, or 57% of all Soviet POWs. Therefore it becomes very difficult to differentiate between

940-609: The German troops. Schutzmannschaften The Schutzmannschaft , or Auxiliary Police ( lit. "protection team"; plural: Schutzmannschaften , abbreviated as Schuma ) was the collaborationist auxiliary police of native policemen serving in those areas of the Soviet Union and the Baltic states occupied by Nazi Germany during World War II . Heinrich Himmler , head of the Schutzstaffel (SS), established

987-576: The German war effort were brought in from the Warsaw Ghetto as well as selected transit ghettos across Europe (Germany, Austria, Slovakia) under Operation Reinhard , and from September 1943 as part of the Majdanek concentration camp system of subcamps such as the Poniatowa concentration camp and several others. From September 1941 until July 1944, the facility served as the full-fledged training base with dining rooms and sleeping quarters for

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1034-552: The Germans. This category wears full German uniform, with their own ranks and badges. They eat like German soldiers and they are attached to German regiments. Thirdly, there are Russian prisoners who do the dirty jobs, kitchens, stables and so on. These three categories are treated in different ways, with the best treatment naturally reserved for the volunteers. Soviet authorities referred to the Hiwis as "former Russians " regardless of

1081-687: The Holocaust (guarding or liquidating Nazi ghettos ). About 12,000 men guarded forced laborers (Soviet POWs, civilians, Jews) working on the Durchgangsstrasse IV , a major road from Lemberg (now Lviv ) to Stalino (now Donetsk ). The issue of involving Schutzmannschaft in combat was revisited after the Battle of Stalingrad . Some Schutzmannschaft battalions in Estonia, Latvia, Ukraine and elsewhere were reorganized into Waffen-SS divisions wearing national insignia. Deserters were

1128-477: The Order Police formed between 1939 and 1945 and which also participated in the Holocaust. The Order Police organized the Schutzmannschaften by nationality: Belarusian , Estonian , Latvian , Lithuanian , and Ukrainian . The Germans did not want to use local collaborators on a large scale as they were deemed to be unreliable and inferior ( Untermensch ). However, the rapid German advance in

1175-632: The Soviet POW camps. After training, they were deployed for service with Nazi Germany , in the General Government , and the occupied East. In one instance, the German SS and police inducted, processed, and trained 5,082 Hiwi guards before the end of 1944 at the SS training camp division of the Trawniki concentration camp set up in the village of Trawniki southeast of Lublin . They were known as

1222-429: The Trawniki concentration camp were ordered to begin the construction of trenches that would become mass graves. Although the trenches were supposedly for defense against air raids, and their zigzag shape granted some plausibility to this lie, the prisoners guessed their true purpose. The massacres, later assumed to have been revenge for German defeat at Stalingrad , were set by Christian Wirth for November 3, 1943, under

1269-478: The battalions for more direct military duties. In particular, Franz Walter Stahlecker asked to relieve the 16th Army in the Demyansk Pocket . However, Hitler refused. In Directive no. 46 , dated August 1942, he agreed to strengthen and enlarge Schutzmannschaft , but to use it only for Nazi security warfare and other auxiliary duties behind the front lines. Some battalions continued to participate in

1316-461: The battalions were voluntary units and were not directly involved in combat. In total, about 200 battalions were formed. There were approximately 21 ethnic Estonian, 47 Latvian, 26 Lithuanian, 11 Belarusian, 8 Tatar, and 71 Ukrainian Schuma battalions. Each battalion had an authorized strength of about 500, but the actual size varied greatly. They should not be confused with native German Order Police battalions ( SS-Polizei-Bataillone ) which

1363-597: The circumstances of their joining or their fate at the hands of the NKVD secret police. After the war, thousands attempted to return to their homes in the USSR. Hundreds were captured and prosecuted, charged with treason and therefore guilty of enlistment from the start of judicial proceedings. Most were sentenced to the Gulag labor camps , and released under the Khrushchev amnesty of 1955. The reliance upon Hiwis exposed

1410-427: The codename Operation Harvest Festival , simultaneously at Majdanek , Trawniki, Poniatowa , Budzyn, Kraśnik , Puławy and Lipowa subcamps. The bodies of Jews shot in the pits by Trawniki men aided by Battalion 101 were later incinerated by a Sonderkommando from Milejów , who were executed on site upon the completion of their task by the end of 1943. Operation Harvest Festival, with approximately 43,000 victims,

1457-590: The completely empty facility on July 23, 1944. After the war, they captured and prosecuted hundreds, possibly as many as one thousand Hiwis who returned home to USSR. Most were sentenced to Gulags , and released under the Khrushchev amnesty of 1955. The number of Hiwis tried in the West was very small by comparison. Six defendants were acquitted on all charges and set free by a West German court in Hamburg in 1976 including commandant Streibel. The Trawniki men apprehended in Soviet Union were charged with treason (not

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1504-458: The context of World War II the term has clear connotations of collaborationism , and in the case of the occupied Soviet territories also of anti- Bolshevism (widely presented as such by the Germans). German historian Werner Röhr  [ de ] wrote that there were many different reasons why Soviet citizens volunteered. He argues that the issue has to be seen first and foremost with

1551-403: The end of 1944 – across from the forlorn Jewish camp separated by an inner fence. Although the majority of Trawniki men (or Hiwis ) came from among the willing prisoners of war of Ukrainian ethnicity, there were also Volksdeutsche from Eastern Europe among them, valued because of their ability to speak Ukrainian, Russian, Polish and other languages of the occupied territories. They became

1598-401: The equivalent German personnel several times; in most places, the ratio of Germans to natives was about 1-to-10. The auxiliary police battalions ( Schutzmannschaft-Bataillone ) were created to provide security in the occupied territories, in particular by combating the anti-Nazi resistance . Many of these battalions participated in the Holocaust and caused thousands of Jewish deaths. Usually

1645-416: The first tasks of the battalions was mass execution of Jews. Attached to Einsatzgruppen as needed, the battalions rounded up, executed, and disposed of Jews. For example, it is estimated that Lithuanian Schutzmannschaft killed 78,000 Jews in Lithuania and Belarus. The mass executions largely ceased by the end of 1941. By that time German advance into Soviet Union halted and Nazi officials considered using

1692-466: The later stages of the war. In general, the battalions were poorly provided for, sometimes even lacking food rations, as priority and preference was given to German units fighting in the front lines. The Schutzmannschaft battalions were organized by nationality: Ukrainians, Belarusians, Estonians, Lithuanians, Latvians, Tatars. Germans attempted to organize police battalions in occupied Poland , but did not find volunteers and had to use force in forming

1739-402: The makeshift industrial plants of SS-Ostindustrie , working in appalling conditions with little food. There were 12,000 Jews imprisoned at Trawniki as of 1943 sorting through trainsets of clothing delivered from Holocaust locations. They were all massacred during Operation Harvest Festival of November 3, 1943, by the auxiliary units of Trawniki men stationed at the same location, helped by

1786-485: The new Schutzmannschaften recruited from POW camps for service with Nazi Germany in the General Government territory. Karl Streibel , the camp commander, and his officers used to induce Ukrainian, Latvian and Lithuanian men already familiar with firearms to take the initiative of their own free will. The total of 5,082 men were prepared at Trawniki for duty in German Sonderdienst battalions before

1833-788: The only squad commanders. Trawniki men took major part in Operation Reinhard , the Nazi plan to exterminate Polish and foreign Jews. They served at extermination camps , and played an important role in the annihilation of the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising (see the Stroop Report ) and the Białystok Ghetto Uprising among other ghetto insurgencies. Towards the end of October, the entire slave-labour workforce of KL Lublin/Majdanek including Jewish prisoners of

1880-609: The original German legend: 1 & 2. Unterkünfte der Ukrainer des Ausbildungslagers "Accommodations for the Ukrainians at the training camp" 3. Garage    [Squad deployment vehicles] 4. Unterkünfte der Esten und Letten des Ausbildungslagers "Accommodations for the Estonians and Latvians at the training camp" 11. Ställe in Steingebäuden "Stables in stone building" [Livestock for Hiwi food supply] The Trawniki concentration camp

1927-536: The service and eliminated service term limits (initially men signed up for one-year or six-month terms). There was a marked difference in attitudes of more enthusiastic early volunteers and later forced recruits. To increase their reliability, Himmler ordered the organization of NCO training, which would include political education, that lasted up to eight weeks. The Schutzmannschaft comprised four sections: Police battalions were divided based on their intended functions into five categories: Each battalion had

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1974-630: The shootings) and therefore were guilty of enlistment from the start of judicial proceedings. In the U.S. some 16 former Hiwi guards were denaturalized , some of whom were very old. In January 1943 the SS Germanische Leitstelle in occupied Zakopane in the heartland of the Tatra mountains embarked on a recruitment drive with an idea of forming a brand new Waffen-SS highlander division. Some 200 young Goralenvolk signed up, while offered unlimited supply of alcohol. They boarded

2021-488: The single Polish Schutzmannschaft Battalion 202 . The battalions were initially allotted numbers as follows (in brackets: re-allotted numbers in 1942; not all numbers were actually used): The battalions were not confined to their locations and could be easily moved to locations far outside their home country. Since formation of the battalions was particularly slow in Belarus, many of them were first stationed there. One of

2068-527: The travelling Reserve Police Battalion 101 from Orpo . The first camp commandant was Hermann Hoefle , replaced by Karl Streibel . The Nazi camp at Trawniki was first established in July 1941 to hold prisoners of war captured in Operation Barbarossa , the German invasion of the Soviet Union. The new barracks behind the barbed-wire fence were erected by the prisoners themselves. In 1942 the camp

2115-686: Was enlarged to include the SS- Arbeitslager meant for the Polish Jews from across General Government. Within a year, under the management of Gauleiter Odilo Globocnik , the camp included a number of forced labour workshops such as the fur processing plant ( Pelzverarbeitungswerk ), the brush factory ( Bürstenfabrik ), the bristles finishing ( Borstenzurichterei ), and the new branch of Das Torfwerk in Dorohucza . The Jews who worked there from June 1942 to May 1944 as slave labour for

2162-554: Was set up by Nazi Germany in the village of Trawniki about 40 kilometres (25 mi) southeast of Lublin during the occupation of Poland in World War II. Throughout its existence the camp served a dual function. It was organized on the grounds of the former Polish sugar refinery of the Central Industrial Region , and subdivided into at least three distinct zones. The Trawniki camp first opened after

2209-517: Was the single largest German massacre of Jews in the entire war. It surpassed the notorious massacre of more than 33,000 Jews at Babi Yar outside Kiev by 10,000 victims. The Trawniki training camp was dismantled in July 1944 because of the approaching front line. The last 1,000 Hiwis forming the SS Battalion Streibel led by Karl Streibel himself, were transported west to work at the still functioning death camps. The Soviets entered

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