Sowing is the process of planting seeds. An area that has had seeds planted in it will be described as a sowed or sown area. When sowing it is important to:
68-409: Among the major field crops, oats , wheat , and rye are sown, grasses and legumes are seeded and maize and soybeans are planted. In planting, wider rows (generally 75 cm (30 in) or more) are used, and the intent is to have precise; even spacing between individual seeds in the row, various mechanisms have been devised to count out individual seeds at exact intervals. In sowing, little if any soil
136-438: A fruit or cone after the union of male and female reproductive cells . All fully developed seeds contain an embryo and, in most plant species some store of food reserves, wrapped in a seed coat. Dormant seeds are viable seeds that do not germinate because they require specific internal or environmental stimuli to resume growth. Under proper conditions, the seed begins to germinate and the embryo resumes growth, developing into
204-441: A petri dish or test tube). During germination, the tube cell elongates into a pollen tube . In the flower, the pollen tube then grows towards the ovule where it discharges the sperm produced in the pollen grain for fertilization. The germinated pollen grain with its two sperm cells is the mature male microgametophyte of these plants. Since most plants carry both male and female reproductive organs in their flowers, there
272-439: A blended food pellet. Cattle are also fed oats, either whole or ground into a coarse flour using a roller mill , burr mill , or hammermill . Oat forage is commonly used to feed all kinds of ruminants, as pasture, straw, hay or silage. Winter oats may be grown as an off-season groundcover and ploughed under in the spring as a green fertilizer , or harvested in early summer. They also can be used for pasture; they can be grazed
340-592: A green manure. Phylogenetic analysis using molecular DNA and morphological evidence places the oat genus Avena in the Pooideae subfamily. That subfamily includes the cereals wheat , barley , and rye ; they are in the Triticeae tribe, while Avena is in the Poeae , along with grasses such as Briza and Agrostis . The wild ancestor of Avena sativa and the closely related minor crop – A. byzantina –
408-426: A height of 1.8 metres (5.9 ft). The leaves are long, narrow, and pointed, and grow upwards; they can be some 15 to 40 centimetres (5.9 to 15.7 in) in length, and around 5 to 15 millimetres (0.20 to 0.59 in) in width. At the top of the stem, the plant branches into a loose cluster or panicle of spikelets . These contain the wind-pollinated flowers, which mature into the oat seeds or grains. Botanically
476-813: A lower summer heat requirement and greater tolerance of (and need for) rain than the other cereals mentioned, so they are particularly important in areas with cool, wet summers, such as Northwest Europe. Oats can grow in most fertile, drained soils, being tolerant of a wide variety of soil types. Although better yields are achieved at a soil pH of 5.3 to 5.7, oats can tolerate soils with a pH as low as 4.5. They are better able to grow in low-nutrient soils than wheat or maize , but generally are less tolerant of high soil salinity than other cereals. Oats can outcompete many weeds, as they grow thickly (with many leafy shoots) and vigorously, but are still subject to some broadleaf weeds . Control can be by herbicides, or by integrated pest management with measures such as sowing seed that
544-473: A major hormone in the germination process. Another factor that promotes germination is HFR1 which accumulates in light in some way and forms inactive heterodimers with PIF1. Although the exact mechanism is not known, nitric oxide (NO) plays a role in this pathway as well. NO is thought to repress PIF1 gene expression and stabilises HFR1 in some way to support the start of germination. Bethke et al. (2006) exposed dormant Arabidopsis seeds to NO gas and within
612-494: A major role in integrating progression through germination with repair responses to the DNA damages accumulated by the aged seed. The part of the plant that first emerges from the seed is the embryonic root, termed the radicle or primary root. It allows the seedling to become anchored in the ground and start absorbing water. After the root absorbs water, an embryonic shoot emerges from the seed. This shoot comprises three main parts:
680-463: A percentage of oats, often 30%, is added to the barley for the wort . Oatmeal caudle , made of ale and oatmeal with spices, was a traditional British drink and a favourite of Oliver Cromwell . Oats are commonly used as feed for horses when extra carbohydrates and the subsequent boost in energy are required. The oat hull may be crushed (" rolled " or "crimped") to make them easier to digest, or may be fed whole. They may be given alone or as part of
748-429: A plant hormone largely responsible for seed dormancy. The balance between GA and ABA is important. When ABA levels are higher than GA then that leads to dormant seeds and when GA levels are higher, seeds germinate. The switch between seed dormancy and germination needs to occur at a time when the seed has the best chances of surviving and an important cue that begins the process of seed germination and overall plant growth
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#1732780787580816-471: A prevalence of about 1% in the developed world . Oat products are frequently contaminated by other gluten-containing grains, mainly wheat and barley , requiring caution in the use of oats if people are sensitive to the gluten in those grains. For example, oat bread often contains only a small proportion of oats alongside wheat or other cereals. Use of pure oats in a gluten-free diet offers improved nutritional value, but remains controversial because
884-459: A protective coat containing several cells (up to 8 in gymnosperms, 2–3 in flowering plants). One of these cells is a tube cell . Once the pollen grain lands on the stigma of a receptive flower (or a female cone in gymnosperms), it takes up water and germinates. Pollen germination is facilitated by hydration on the stigma, as well as by the structure and physiology of the stigma and style. Pollen can also be induced to germinate in vitro (in
952-510: A reduction in the mean germination time, an increase in the coefficient of germination velocity, the germination index and germination percentage after administration of exogenous glutamine to plants. Seed quality deteriorates with age, and this is associated with accumulation of genome damage. During germination, repair processes are activated to deal with accumulated DNA damage . In particular, single- and double-strand breaks in DNA can be repaired. The DNA damage checkpoint kinase ATM has
1020-482: A rich source (20% or more of the Daily Value , DV) of protein (34% DV), dietary fiber (44% DV), several B vitamins , and numerous dietary minerals , especially manganese (213% DV) (table). Regular consumption of oat products lowers blood levels of low-density lipoprotein and total cholesterol , reducing the risk of cardiovascular disease . The beneficial effect of oat consumption on lowering blood lipids
1088-600: A seedling. Disturbance of soil can result in vigorous plant growth by exposing seeds already in the soil to changes in environmental factors where germination may have previously been inhibited by depth of the seeds or soil that was too compact. This is often observed at gravesites after a burial. Seed germination depends on both internal and external conditions. The most important external factors include right temperature , water , oxygen or air and sometimes light or darkness . Various plants require different variables for successful seed germination. Often this depends on
1156-804: A small proportion of people with celiac disease react to pure oats. In his 1755 Dictionary of the English Language , Samuel Johnson defined oats as "A grain, which in England is generally given to horses, but in Scotland supports the people." "Oats and Beans and Barley Grow" is the first line of a traditional folksong (1380 in the Roud Folk Song Index ), recorded in different forms from 1870. Similar songs are recorded from France, Canada, Belgium, Sweden, and Italy. In English , oats are associated with sexual intercourse , as in
1224-520: A source for novel traits in oats. For example, research on oat-maize-addition lines has been used to map genes involved in C4 photosynthesis . To obtain Mendelian inheritance of these novel traits, radiation hybrid lines have been established, where maize chromosome segments have been introgressed into the oat genome. This potentially transfers thousands of genes from a species that is distantly related, but
1292-430: A spore-shedding adult plant. Bacterial spores can be exospores or endospores which are dormant structures produced by a number of different bacteria. They have no or very low metabolic activity and are formed in response to adverse environmental conditions. They allow survival and are not a form of reproduction. Under suitable conditions the spore germinates to produce a viable bacterium. Endospores are formed inside
1360-431: A treatment prior to the sowing process. This treatment may be seed scarification , stratification , seed soaking or seed cleaning with cold (or medium hot) water. Seed soaking is generally done by placing seeds in medium hot water for at least 24 to up to 48 hours Seed cleaning is done especially with fruit, as the flesh of the fruit around the seed can quickly become prone to attack from insects or plagues. Seed washing
1428-518: A while, then allowed to head out for grain production, or grazed continuously until other pastures are ready. Oat straw is used as animal bedding; it absorbs liquids better than wheat straw. The straw can be used for making corn dollies , small decorative woven figures. Tied in a muslin bag, oat straw has been used to soften bath water. Celiac (or coeliac) disease is a permanent autoimmune disease triggered by gluten proteins. It almost always occurs in genetically predisposed people, having
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#17327807875801496-575: Is A. sterilis , a naturally hexaploid wild oat, one that has its DNA in six sets of chromosomes . Genetic evidence shows that the ancestral forms of A. sterilis grew in the Fertile Crescent of the Near East. Analysis of maternal lineages of 25 Avena species using chloroplast and mitochondrial DNA showed that A. sativa 's hexaploid genome derives from three diploid oat species (each with two sets of chromosomes);
1564-432: Is a high risk of self-pollination and thus inbreeding . Some plants use the control of pollen germination as a way to prevent this self-pollination. Germination and growth of the pollen tube involve molecular signaling between stigma and pollen. In self-incompatibility in plants , the stigma of certain plants can molecularly recognize pollen from the same plant and prevent it from germinating. Germination can also refer to
1632-535: Is also assisted when a disease-free soil is used. Especially when trying to germinate difficult seed (e.g. certain tropical fruit), prior treatment of the soil (along with the usage of the most suitable soil; e.g. potting soil , prepared soil or other substrates ) is vital. The two most used soil treatments are pasteurisation and sterilisation . Depending on the necessity, pasteurisation is to be preferred as this does not kill all organisms. Sterilisation can be done when trying to grow truly difficult crops. To pasteurise
1700-468: Is attributed to oat beta-glucan . Oat consumption can help to reduce body mass index in obese people. The United States Food and Drug Administration allows companies to make health claims on labels of food products that contain soluble fiber from whole oats, as long as the food provides 0.75 grams of soluble fiber per serving. When used in foods, oats are most commonly rolled or crushed into oatmeal or ground into fine oat flour . Oatmeal
1768-506: Is chiefly eaten as porridge , but may also be used in a variety of baked goods, such as oatcakes (which may be made with coarse steel-cut oats for a rougher texture), oatmeal cookies and oat bread. Oats are an ingredient in many cold cereals, in particular muesli and granola ; the Quaker Oats Company introduced instant oatmeal in 1966. Oats are also used to produce milk substitutes (" oat milk "). As of late 2020,
1836-430: Is cleaning, to remove seeds of other plants, stones and any other extraneous materials. Next is dehulling to remove the indigestible bran, leaving the seed or " groat ". Heating denatures enzymes in the seed that would make it go sour or rancid; the grain is then dried to minimise the risk of spoilage by bacteria and fungi. There may follow numerous stages of cutting or grinding the grain, depending on which sort of product
1904-405: Is dominated by Canada and Russia; global trade is a small part of production, most of the grain being consumed within the producing countries. Oats are a nutrient -rich food associated with lower blood cholesterol and reduced risk of human heart disease when consumed regularly. One of the most common uses of oats is as livestock feed; the crop can also be grown as groundcover and ploughed in as
1972-676: Is free of weeds. Oats are relatively free from diseases. Nonetheless, they suffer from some leaf diseases, such as stem rust ( Puccinia graminis f. sp. avenae ) and crown rust ( P. coronata var. avenae ). Crown rust infection can greatly reduce photosynthesis and overall physiological activities of oat leaves, thereby reducing growth and crop yield. Oats are attacked by nematodes and by insects including aphids, armyworms, cockchafers, grasshoppers, thrips, and wireworms. Most of these pests are not specific to oats, and only occasionally cause significant damage to oat crops. Harvested oats go through multiple stages of milling. The first stage
2040-401: Is generally done by submerging cleansed seeds 20 minutes in 50 degree Celsius water. This (rather hot than moderately hot) water kills any organisms that may have survived on the skin of a seed. Especially with easily infected tropical fruit such as lychees and rambutans , seed washing with high-temperature water is vital. In addition to the mentioned seed pretreatments, seed germination
2108-426: Is not considered a GMO technique. A 2013 study applied simple sequence repeat and found five major groupings, namely commercial cultivars and four landrace groups. Uncooked oats are 66% carbohydrates , including 11% dietary fiber and 4% beta-glucans , 7% fat , 17% protein , and 8% water (table). In a reference serving of 100 g (3.5 oz), oats provide 389 kilocalories (1,630 kJ ) and are
Sowing - Misplaced Pages Continue
2176-439: Is placed over the seeds, as seeds can be generally sown into the soil by maintaining a planting depth of about 2-3 times the size of the seed. For hand sowing, several sowing types exist; these include: Several patterns for sowing may be used together with these types; these include: Hand sowing or (planting) is the process of casting handfuls of seed over prepared ground: broadcasting, that is, broadcast seeding (from which
2244-409: Is required. For oatmeal (oat flour), the grain is ground to a specified fineness. For home use such as making porridge , oats are often rolled flat to make them quicker to cook. Oat flour can be ground for small scale use by pulsing rolled oats or old-fashioned (not quick) oats in a food processor or spice mill. In 2022, global production of oats was 26 million tonnes, led by Canada with 20% of
2312-401: Is the photoreceptor that is responsible for the beginning stages of germination. When red light is present, PHYB is converted to its active form and moves from the cytoplasm to the nucleus where it upregulates the degradation of PIF1 . PIF1, phytochrome-interaction-factor-1, negatively regulates germination by increasing the expression of proteins that repress the synthesis of gibberellin (GA),
2380-439: Is typical, though rates vary considerably depending on crop species, soil conditions, and farmer's preference. Excessive rates can cause the crop to lodge, while too thin a rate will result in poor utilisation of the land, competition with weeds and a reduction in the yield . Open-field planting refers to the form of sowing used historically in the agricultural context whereby fields are prepared generically and left open, as
2448-469: Is volumetric in nature; individual seeds are not counted. Rows are typically about 10–30 cm apart, depending on the crop species and growing conditions. Several row opener types are used depending on soil type and local tradition. Grain drills are most often drawn by tractors , but can also be pulled by horses . Pickup trucks are sometimes used, since little draft is required. A seed rate of about 100 kg of seed per hectare (2 bushels per acre)
2516-515: The Chicago Board of Trade and have delivery dates in March, May, July, September, and December. Avena sativa is an allohexaploid species with three ancestral genomes (2 n =6 x =42; AACCDD). As a result, the genome is large (12.6 Gb, 1C-value=12.85) and complex. Cultivated hexaploid oat has a unique mosaic chromosome architecture that is the result of numerous translocations between
2584-656: The Pre-Pottery Neolithic , about 11,400 to 11,200 years ago in the Jordan Valley in the Middle East contained a large number of wild oat grains (120,000 seeds of A. sterilis ). The find implies intentional cultivation . Domesticated oat grains first appear in the archaeological record in Europe around 3000 years ago. The oat is a tall stout grass, a member of the family Poaceae ; it can grow to
2652-431: The cotyledons (seed leaves), the section of shoot below the cotyledons ( hypocotyl ), and the section of shoot above the cotyledons ( epicotyl ). The way the shoot emerges differs among plant groups. Epigeal germination (or epigeous germination) is a botanical term indicating that the germination takes place above the ground. In epigeal germination, the hypocotyl elongates and forms a hook, pulling rather than pushing
2720-418: The cotyledons and apical meristem through the soil. Once it reaches the surface, it straightens and pulls the cotyledons and shoot tip of the growing seedlings into the air. Beans , tamarind, and papaya are examples of plants that germinate this way. Germination can also be done by hypogeal germination (or hypogeous germination), where the epicotyl elongates and forms the hook. In this type of germination,
2788-474: The technological term is derived). Usually, a drag or harrow is employed to incorporate the seed into the soil. Though labor-intensive for any but small areas, this method is still used in some situations. Practice is required to sow evenly and at the desired rate. A hand seeder can be used for sowing, though it is less of a help than it is for the smaller seeds of grasses and legumes . Hand sowing may be combined with pre-sowing in seed trays . This allows
Sowing - Misplaced Pages Continue
2856-503: The CCDD from the tetraploid Avena insularis . Species of Avena can hybridize , and genes introgressed (brought in) from other "A" genome species have contributed many valuable traits, like resistance to oat crown rust . Pc98 is one such trait, introgressed from A. sterilis CAV 1979 , conferring all stage resistance (ASR) against Pca . It is possible to hybridize oats with grasses in other genera, allowing plant breeders
2924-442: The cotyledons stay underground where they eventually decompose. Peas, chickpeas and mango, for example, germinate this way. In monocot seeds, the embryo's radicle and cotyledon are covered by a coleorhiza and coleoptile , respectively. The coleorhiza is the first part to grow out of the seed, followed by the radicle. The coleoptile is then pushed up through the ground until it reaches the surface. There, it stops elongating and
2992-466: The emergence of cells from resting spores and the growth of sporeling hyphae or thalli from spores in fungi , algae and some plants. Conidia are asexual reproductive (reproduction without the fusing of gametes) spores of fungi which germinate under specific conditions. A variety of cells can be formed from the germinating conidia. The most common are germ tubes which grow and develop into hyphae. The initial formation and subsequent elongation of
3060-491: The establishment can be so high that many species have adapted to produce large numbers of seeds. In agriculture and gardening , the germination rate describes how many seeds of a particular plant species , variety or seedlot are likely to germinate over a given period. It is a measure of germination time course and is usually expressed as a percentage, e.g., an 85% germination rate indicates that about 85 out of 100 seeds will probably germinate under proper conditions over
3128-509: The first leaves emerge. When a seed germinates without undergoing all four stages of seed development, i.e., globular, heart shape, torpedo shape, and cotyledonary stage, it is known as precocious germination. Another germination event during the life cycle of gymnosperms and flowering plants is the germination of a pollen grain after pollination . Like seeds, pollen grains are severely dehydrated before being released to facilitate their dispersal from one plant to another. They consist of
3196-404: The free-living amoebas of slime molds). In plants such as bryophytes , ferns , and a few others, spores germinate into independent gametophytes . In the bryophytes (e.g., mosses and liverworts ), spores germinate into protonemata , similar to fungal hyphae, from which the gametophyte grows. In ferns , the gametophytes are small, heart-shaped prothalli that can often be found underneath
3264-472: The germ tube in the fungus Aspergillus niger has been captured in 3D using holotomography microscopy. Another type of cell is a conidial anastomosis tube (CAT); these differ from germ tubes in that they are thinner, shorter, lack branches, exhibit determinate growth and home toward each other. Each cell is of a tubular shape, but the conidial anastomosis tube forms a bridge that allows fusion between conidia. In resting spores , germination involves cracking
3332-441: The germination period given. Seed germination rate is determined by the seed genetic composition, morphological features and environmental factors. The germination rate is useful for calculating the number of seeds needed for a given area or desired number of plants. For seed physiologists and seed scientists "germination rate" is the reciprocal of time taken for the process of germination to complete starting from time of sowing . On
3400-517: The grain is a caryopsis , as the wall of the fruit is fused on to the actual seed. Like other cereal grains, the caryopsis contains the outer husk or bran , the starchy food store or endosperm which occupies most of the seed, and the protein-rich germ which if planted in soil can grow into a new plant. Oats are annual plants best grown in temperate regions. They tolerate cold winters less well than wheat, rye , or barley; they are harmed by sustained cold below −7 °C (20 °F). They have
3468-414: The idioms "sowing one's (wild) oats", meaning having many sexual partners in one's youth, and "getting your oats", meaning having sex regularly. Seed germination Germination is the process by which an organism grows from a seed or spore . The term is applied to the sprouting of a seedling from a seed of an angiosperm or gymnosperm , the growth of a sporeling from a spore , such as
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#17327807875803536-848: The individual seed variety and is closely linked to the ecological conditions of a plant's natural habitat . For some seeds, their future germination response is affected by environmental conditions during seed formation; most often these responses are types of seed dormancy . Most common annual vegetables have optimal germination temperatures between 75–90 F (24–32 C), though many species (e.g. radishes or spinach ) can germinate at significantly lower temperatures, as low as 40 F (4 C), thus allowing them to be grown from seeds in cooler climates. Suboptimal temperatures lead to lower success rates and longer germination periods. Some live seeds are dormant and need more time, and/or need to be subjected to specific environmental conditions before they will germinate. Seed dormancy can originate in different parts of
3604-540: The mother cell, whereas exospores are formed at the end of the mother cell as a bud. As mentioned earlier, light can be an environmental factor that stimulates the germination process. The seed needs to be able to determine when is the perfect time to germinate and they do that by sensing environmental cues. Once germination starts, the stored nutrients that have accumulated during maturation start to be digested which then supports cell expansion and overall growth. Within light-stimulated germination, phytochrome B ( PHYB )
3672-557: The name suggests, before being sown directly with seed. The seed is frequently left uncovered at the surface of the soil before germinating and therefore exposed to the prevailing climate and conditions like storms etc. This is in contrast to the seedbed method used more commonly in domestic gardening or more specific (modern) agricultural scenarios where the seed is applied beneath the soil surface and monitored and manually tended frequently to ensure more successful growth rates and better yields. Before sowing, certain seeds first require
3740-450: The next 4 days, 90% of the seeds broke dormancy and germinated. The authors also looked at how NO and GA effects the vacuolation process of aleurone cells that allow the movement of nutrients to be digested. A NO mutant resulted in inhibition of vacuolation but when GA was later added the process was active again leading to the belief that NO is prior to GA in the pathway. NO may also lead to the decrease in sensitivity of abscisic acid (ABA),
3808-537: The oat milk market became the second-largest among plant milks in the United States, following almond milk , but exceeding the sales of soy milk . As a mainstay of West Wales for centuries, until changes in farming practices in the 1960s, oats were used in many traditional Welsh dishes , including laverbread , a Welsh breakfast , and " cockles and eggs" served with oatbread. In Britain, oats are sometimes used for brewing beer, such as oatmeal stout where
3876-610: The other hand, the number of seed able to complete germination in a population (i.e. seed lot) is referred to as germination capacity . Soil salinity is one of the stress factors that can limit the germination rate. Environmental stress activates some stress-related activities [CuZn- superoxide dismutase (SOD), Mn-SOD, L-ascorbate oxidase (AO), DNA polymerase Delta 1 (POLD)-1, Chaperon (CHAPE) and heat shock protein (HSP)-21], genetic template stability and photosynthetic pigment activation. Application of exogenic glutamine limiting this process. Research carried out on onion seeds shows
3944-400: The plants to come to strength indoors during cold periods (e.g. spring in temperate countries). In agriculture , most seed is now sown using a seed drill , which offers greater precision; seed is sown evenly and at the desired rate. The drill also places the seed at a measured distance below the soil, so that less seed is required. The standard design uses a fluted feed metering system, which
4012-527: The production of barley malt . In some definitions, the appearance of the radicle marks the end of germination and the beginning of "establishment", a period that utilizes the food reserves stored in the seed. Germination and establishment as an independent organism are critical phases in the life of a plant when they are the most vulnerable to injury, disease, and water stress. The germination index can be used as an indicator of phytotoxicity in soils. The mortality between dispersal of seeds and completion of
4080-438: The ready introgression of traits. In contrast to wheat , oats sometimes retain chromosomes from maize or pearl millet after such crosses. These wide crosses are typically made to generate doubled haploid breeding material; the rapid loss of the alien chromosomes from the unrelated pollen donor results in a plant with only a single set of chromosomes (a haploid ). The addition lines with alien chromosomes can be used as
4148-502: The seed, for example, within the embryo; in other cases the seed coat is involved. Dormancy breaking often involves changes in membranes, initiated by dormancy-breaking signals. This generally occurs only within hydrated seeds. Factors affecting seed dormancy include the presence of certain plant hormones, notably abscisic acid , which inhibits germination, and gibberellin , which ends seed dormancy. In brewing , barley seeds are treated with gibberellin to ensure uniform seed germination for
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#17327807875804216-706: The sets are dubbed A, B, C, and D. The diploid species are the CC A. ventricosa , the AA A. canariensis , and the AA A. longiglumis , along with two tetraploid oats (each with four sets), namely the AACC A. insularis and the AABB A. agadiriana . Tetraploids were formed as much as 10.6 mya , and hexaploids as much as 7.4 mya. Genomic study suggests that the hulled variety and the naked variety A. sativa var. nuda diverged around 51,200 years ago, long before domestication . This implies that
4284-958: The soil, the soil is heated for 15 minutes in an oven of 120 °C. Oat The oat ( Avena sativa ), sometimes called the common oat , is a species of cereal grain grown for its seed, which is known by the same name (usually in the plural). Oats appear to have been domesticated as a secondary crop , as their seeds resembled those of other cereals closely enough for them to be included by early cultivators. Oats tolerate cold winters less well than cereals such as wheat , barley , and rye , but need less summer heat and more rain, making them important in areas such as Northwest Europe that have cool wet summers. They can tolerate low-nutrient and acid soils. Oats grow thickly and vigorously, allowing them to outcompete many weeds, and compared to other cereals are relatively free from diseases. Oats are used for human consumption as oatmeal , including as steel cut oats or rolled oats . Global production
4352-426: The spores of fungi , ferns, bacteria , and the growth of the pollen tube from the pollen grain of a seed plant . Germination is usually the growth of a plant contained within a seed resulting in the formation of the seedling. It is also the process of reactivation of metabolic machinery of the seed resulting in the emergence of radicle and plumule . The seed of a vascular plant is a small package produced in
4420-439: The thick cell wall of the dormant spore. For example, in zygomycetes the thick-walled zygosporangium cracks open and the zygospore inside gives rise to the emerging sporangiophore. In slime molds , germination refers to the emergence of amoeboid cells from the hardened spore. After cracking the spore coat, further development involves cell division, but not necessarily the development of a multicellular organism (for example in
4488-438: The three subgenomes. These translocations may cause breeding barriers and incompatibilities when crossing varieties with different chromosomal architecture. Hence, oat breeding and the crossing of desired traits has been hampered by the lack of a reference genome assembly. In May 2022, a fully annotated reference genome sequence of Avena sativa was reported. The AA subgenome is presumed to be derived from Avena longiglumis and
4556-455: The total and Russia with 17% (table). This compares to over 100 million tonnes for wheat , for example. Global trade represents a modest percentage of production, less than 10%, most of the grain being consumed within producing countries. The main exporter is Canada, followed by Sweden and Finland; the US is the main importer. Oats futures are traded in US dollars in quantities of 5000 bushels on
4624-453: The two varieties were domesticated independently. Oats are thought to have emerged as a secondary crop . This means that they are derived from what was considered a weed of the primary cereal domesticates such as wheat. They survived as a Vavilovian mimic by having grains that Neolithic people found hard to distinguish from the primary crop. Oats were cultivated for some thousands of years before they were domesticated. A granary from
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