The Sony Ericsson Satio (U1) is a smartphone , announced by Sony Ericsson at the Mobile World Congress in Barcelona, Spain on 15 February 2009 as the Idou (pronounced "I do"). It was released on 7 October 2009 in the UK in 3 colour schemes: Black, Silver and Bordeaux (Red).
129-451: The focus of the phone is the high quality playback of music and video, as well as photography. The camera is located on the back of the phone, behind a slider and features a xenon flash . On the side of the phone, there is a shutter button, and a button which allows you to switch between still and video modes. Next to this is a rocker switch for zooming in and out. Also on this side is a button for playback of photos or video. The other side of
258-440: A camera lens for shadowless photography —' ring flashes '). In some applications, the emission of ultraviolet light is undesired, whether due to production of ozone , damage to laser rods, degradation of plastics, or other detrimental effects. In these cases, a doped fused silica is used. Doping with titanium dioxide can provide different cutoff wavelengths on the ultraviolet side, but the material suffers from solarization ; it
387-473: A druse (a layer of crystals lining a void), of which quartz geodes are particularly fine examples. The crystals are attached at one end to the enclosing rock, and only one termination pyramid is present. However, doubly terminated crystals do occur where they develop freely without attachment, for instance, within gypsum . α-quartz crystallizes in the trigonal crystal system, space group P 3 1 21 or P 3 2 21 (space group 152 or 154 resp.) depending on
516-560: A pressure cooker . However, the quality and size of the crystals that were produced by these early efforts were poor. Elemental impurity incorporation strongly influences the ability to process and utilize quartz. Naturally occurring quartz crystals of extremely high purity, necessary for the crucibles and other equipment used for growing silicon wafers in the semiconductor industry, are expensive and rare. These high-purity quartz are defined as containing less than 50 ppm of impurity elements. A major mining location for high purity quartz
645-436: A spark will form between the electrodes, allowing the capacitor to discharge. The sudden surge of electric current quickly heats the gas to a plasma state, where electrical resistance becomes very low. There are several methods of triggering. External triggering is the most common method of operation, especially for photographic use. The electrodes are charged to a voltage high enough to respond to triggering, but below
774-431: A vacuum pump to be attached to control the gas pressure. The electrodes of the lamp are connected to a charged capacitor, and then the gas is vacuumed from the lamp. When the gas reaches a low enough pressure (often just a few torr) randomly-ionized particles are able to accelerate to velocities sufficient to begin ejecting electrons from the cathode as they impact its surface, resulting in a Townsend avalanche that causes
903-411: A 70% increase in pressure over xenon to achieve this. Argon can be up to 30% efficient, but requires an even greater pressure-increase. At such high pressures, the voltage drop between the electrodes, formed by the spark streamer, may be greater than the capacitor voltage. These lamps often need a "boost voltage" during the trigger phase, to overcome the extremely high trigger-impedance. Nitrogen , in
1032-663: A burial context, such as Newgrange or Carrowmore in Ireland . Quartz was also used in Prehistoric Ireland , as well as many other countries, for stone tools ; both vein quartz and rock crystal were knapped as part of the lithic technology of the prehistoric peoples. While jade has been since earliest times the most prized semi-precious stone for carving in East Asia and Pre-Columbian America, in Europe and
1161-492: A dark or dimly lit room, to avoid overexposing the film, and a method of timing the flash to the event to be photographed. The earliest known use of spark photography began with Henry Fox Talbot around 1850. In 1886, Ernst Mach used an open-air spark to photograph a speeding bullet, revealing the shockwaves it produced at supersonic speeds. Open-air spark systems were fairly easy to build, but were bulky, very limited in light output, and produced loud noises comparable to that of
1290-487: A defining constituent of granite and other felsic igneous rocks . It is very common in sedimentary rocks such as sandstone and shale . It is a common constituent of schist , gneiss , quartzite and other metamorphic rocks . Quartz has the lowest potential for weathering in the Goldich dissolution series and consequently it is very common as a residual mineral in stream sediments and residual soils . Generally
1419-440: A gunshot. Quartz Quartz is a hard, crystalline mineral composed of silica ( silicon dioxide ). The atoms are linked in a continuous framework of SiO 4 silicon–oxygen tetrahedra , with each oxygen being shared between two tetrahedra, giving an overall chemical formula of SiO 2 . Quartz is, therefore, classified structurally as a framework silicate mineral and compositionally as an oxide mineral . Quartz
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#17327731990831548-584: A high presence of quartz suggests a " mature " rock, since it indicates the rock has been heavily reworked and quartz was the primary mineral that endured heavy weathering. While the majority of quartz crystallizes from molten magma , quartz also chemically precipitates from hot hydrothermal veins as gangue , sometimes with ore minerals like gold, silver and copper. Large crystals of quartz are found in magmatic pegmatites . Well-formed crystals may reach several meters in length and weigh hundreds of kilograms. The largest documented single crystal of quartz
1677-417: A large outer diameter, ring-shaped electrodes, and a hollow inner core, allowing both lower inductance and a dye cell to be placed like an axle through the center of the lamp. In contrast, changes in the input voltage or capacitance have no effect on discharge time, although they do have an effect on current density. As flash duration decreases, the electrical energy becomes concentrated into shorter pulses, so
1806-425: A lighter gas will only reduce the efficiency of the heavier one. As the current pulse travels through the tube, it ionizes the atoms, causing them to jump to higher energy-levels. Three types of particles are found within the arc plasma, consisting of electrons , positively ionized atoms , and neutral atoms . At any given time during the flash, the ionized atoms make up less than 1% of the plasma and produce all of
1935-415: A liquid, typically by flowing deionized water through a tube in which the lamp is encased. Water-cooled lamps will generally have the glass shrunk around the electrodes, to provide a direct thermal conductor between them and the cooling water. The cooling medium should flow also across the entire length of the lamp and electrodes. High average power or continuous-wave arc lamps must have the water flow across
2064-416: A long enough duration to allow one streamer to reach the opposite electrode, or erratic triggering will result.) The triggering can be enhanced by applying the trigger pulse to a "reference plane", which may be in the form of a metal band or reflector affixed to the glass, a conductive paint, or a thin wire wrapped around the length of the lamp. If the capacitor voltage is greater than the voltage drop between
2193-406: A lower pressure increase during operation. The electrodes of the lamp are usually connected to a capacitor , which is charged to a relatively high voltage (generally between 250 and 5000 volts), using a step up transformer and a rectifier . The gas, however, exhibits extremely high resistance , and the lamp will not conduct electricity until the gas is ionized . Once ionized, or "triggered",
2322-412: A maximum of 160 watts per square centimeter of internal surface-area. Other glasses have a much lower threshold. Extremely fast systems, with inductance below critical damping (0.8 microhenries), usually require a shunt diode across the capacitor, to prevent current reversal (ringing) from destroying the lamp. If the pulse is allowed to ring through the lamp it will lengthen the flash, so the diode traps
2451-548: A relatively small, continuous input of electrical power, they are also used in aircraft warning lights , emergency vehicle lighting , fire alarm notification appliances ( horn strobes ), aircraft anticollision beacons , and other similar applications. In dentistry it is used in "light box" devices to light-activate the hardening of various restorative and auxiliary light-curing resins (for example: Megaflash mini, Uni XS and other devices). Due to their high intensity and relative brightness at short wavelengths (extending into
2580-409: A rising electrostatic field, which ionizes the gas inside the tube. The capacitance of the glass couples the trigger pulse into the envelope, where it exceeds the breakdown voltage of the gas surrounding one or both of the electrodes, forming spark streamers. The streamers propagate via capacitance along the glass at a speed of 1 centimeter in 60 nanoseconds (170 km/s). (A trigger pulse must have
2709-454: A single ablative flashtube can also be more intense than multiple lamps. For these reasons, the most common use for the lamps is for the pumping of dye lasers. In addition, an insulated-gate bipolar transistor (IGBT) can be connected in series with both the trigger transformer and the lamp, making adjustable flash durations possible. An IGBT used for this purpose must be rated for a high pulsed-current, so as to avoid over-current damage to
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#17327731990832838-574: A small Brazilian mine, but it is also seen in Lower Silesia in Poland . Naturally occurring prasiolite is also found in the Thunder Bay area of Canada . Quartz crystals have piezoelectric properties; they develop an electric potential upon the application of mechanical stress . Quartz's piezoelectric properties were discovered by Jacques and Pierre Curie in 1880. Quartz is
2967-437: A submicroscopic distribution of colloidal ferric hydroxide impurities. Natural citrines are rare; most commercial citrines are heat-treated amethysts or smoky quartzes . However, a heat-treated amethyst will have small lines in the crystal, as opposed to a natural citrine's cloudy or smoky appearance. It is nearly impossible to differentiate between cut citrine and yellow topaz visually, but they differ in hardness . Brazil
3096-472: A sudden, violent, localized increase in the internal pressure of the lamp, increasing the efficiency of the flash to very high levels. The ablation, however, causes extensive wear to the lamp, weakening the glass, and they typically need replacement after a very short lifetime. Ablative flashtubes need to be refilled and vacuumed to the proper pressure for each flash. Therefore, they cannot be used for very high-repetition applications. Also, this usually precludes
3225-680: A superstition that it would bring prosperity. Citrine was first appreciated as a golden-yellow gemstone in Greece between 300 and 150 BC, during the Hellenistic Age . Yellow quartz was used prior to that to decorate jewelry and tools but it was not highly sought after. Milk quartz or milky quartz is the most common variety of crystalline quartz. The white color is caused by minute fluid inclusions of gas, liquid, or both, trapped during crystal formation, making it of little value for optical and quality gemstone applications. Rose quartz
3354-442: A very strong mechanical seal, but are limited to low temperature operation. Most common in laser pumping applications is the "rod seal", where the rod of the electrode is wetted with another type of glass and then bonded directly to a quartz tube. This seal is very durable and capable of withstanding very high temperature and currents. The seal and the glass must have the same coefficient of thermal expansion. For low electrode wear
3483-439: A voltage to the electrodes which is much higher than the lamp's self-flash threshold, using a spark gap. Often, a combination of simmer voltage and over-volting is used. Very rapid rise-times are often achieved using a prepulse technique. This method is performed by delivering a small flash through the lamp just before the main flash. This flash is of much lower energy than the main flash (typically less than 10%) and, depending on
3612-542: Is a form of quartz that ranges from a bright vivid violet to a dark or dull lavender shade. The world's largest deposits of amethysts can be found in Brazil, Mexico, Uruguay, Russia, France, Namibia, and Morocco. Sometimes amethyst and citrine are found growing in the same crystal. It is then referred to as ametrine . Amethyst derives its color from traces of iron in its structure. Blue quartz contains inclusions of fibrous magnesio-riebeckite or crocidolite . Inclusions of
3741-419: Is a monoclinic polymorph. Lechatelierite is an amorphous silica glass SiO 2 which is formed by lightning strikes in quartz sand . As quartz is a form of silica, it is a possible cause for concern in various workplaces. Cutting, grinding, chipping, sanding, drilling, and polishing natural and manufactured stone products can release hazardous levels of very small, crystalline silica dust particles into
3870-463: Is a primary identifier for the macrocrystalline varieties. Pure quartz, traditionally called rock crystal or clear quartz, is colorless and transparent or translucent and has often been used for hardstone carvings , such as the Lothair Crystal . Common colored varieties include citrine, rose quartz, amethyst, smoky quartz, milky quartz, and others. These color differentiations arise from
3999-400: Is a type of quartz that exhibits a pale pink to rose red hue. The color is usually considered as due to trace amounts of titanium , iron , or manganese in the material. Some rose quartz contains microscopic rutile needles that produce asterism in transmitted light. Recent X-ray diffraction studies suggest that the color is due to thin microscopic fibers of possibly dumortierite within
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4128-478: Is also influenced by the average power. At high levels of average power, care has to be taken to achieve sufficient cooling of the electrodes. While anode temperature is of lower importance, overheating the cathode can greatly reduce the lamp's life expectancy. Depending on the size, type, and application of the flashtube, gas fill pressures may range from a few kilopascals to hundreds of kilopascals (0.01–4.0 atmospheres or tens to thousands of torr ). Generally,
4257-465: Is also occasionally used. At low current-densities, krypton's spectral-line output in the near-IR range is better matched to the absorption profile of neodymium -based laser media than xenon emission, and very closely matches the narrow absorption-profile of Nd:YAG. None of xenon's spectral lines match Nd:YAG's absorption lines so, when pumping Nd:YAG with xenon, the continuum radiation must be used. All gases produce spectral lines which are specific to
4386-575: Is better matched to the absorption spectrum of Nd:YAG. Xenon flashtubes have been used to produce an intense flash of white light, some of which is absorbed by Nd:glass that produces the laser power for inertial confinement fusion . In total about 1 to 1.5% of the electrical power fed into the flashtubes is turned into useful laser light for this application. Pulsed light (PL) is a technique to decontaminate surfaces by killing microorganisms using pulses of an intense broad spectrum, rich in UV-C light. UV-C
4515-454: Is calculated by multiplying the internal surface-area of the lamp, between the electrodes, with the power-loading capacity of the glass. Power loading is determined by the type and thickness of the glass, and the cooling method that is used. Power loading is measured in watts per centimeter squared. However, because the pulsed-power level increases as the flash duration decreases, the explosion energy must then be decreased in direct proportion to
4644-418: Is caused by a temperature gradient between the hot plasma and cooling water, (e.g. 1 mm thick doped quartz has a limit of 160 W/cm , a 0.5 mm thick one has a limit of 320 W/cm ). For this reason, thinner glass is often used for continuous-wave arc-lamps. Thicker materials can generally handle more impact energy from the shock wave that a short-pulsed arc can generate, so quartz as much as 1 mm thick
4773-634: Is created collaboratively under the stewardship of the Symbian Foundation as "Symbian^1". It is Sony Ericsson's first non- UIQ Symbian device, after UIQ's development closed down earlier that year. It uses the PlayNow service, Sony Ericsson's mobile content platform, and is part of the company's new Entertainment Unlimited service. In terms of connectivity, it is Wi-Fi-enabled and has a GPS chip for navigation and location-based services . It also supports full Flash for video playback. The phone
4902-518: Is far more dependent on current density than on the fill pressure or gas type. Low current-densities produce narrow spectral-line emission, against a faint background of continuous radiation. Xenon has many spectral lines in the UV, blue, green, red, and IR portions of the spectrum. Low current densities produce a greenish-blue flash, indicating the absence of significant yellow or orange lines. At low current-densities, most of xenon's output will be directed into
5031-418: Is filled with a gas that, when triggered, ionizes and conducts a high-voltage pulse to make light. Flashtubes are used most in photography; they also are used in science, medicine, industry, and entertainment. The lamp consists of a hermetically sealed glass tube which is filled with a noble gas , usually xenon , and electrodes to carry electric current to the gas. Additionally, a high voltage power source
5160-450: Is necessary to energize the gas as a trigger event. A charged capacitor is usually used to supply energy for the flash, so as to allow very speedy delivery of very high electrical current when the lamp is triggered. The glass envelope is most commonly a thin tube, often made of fused quartz , borosilicate or Pyrex , which may be straight, or bent into a number of different shapes, including helical, "U" shape, and circular (to surround
5289-529: Is obtained at a density that favors "greybody radiation" (an arc that produces mostly continuum emission, but is still mostly translucent to its own light; an effect similar to sunlight when it passes through a cloud). For xenon, greybody radiation is centered near green, and produces the right combination for white light. Greybody radiation is produced at densities above 2400 A/cm . Current densities that are very high, approaching 4000 A/cm , tend to favor black-body radiation . Spectral lines all but disappear as
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5418-523: Is often twinned , synthetic quartz is produced for use in industry. Large, flawless, single crystals are synthesized in an autoclave via the hydrothermal process . Like other crystals, quartz may be coated with metal vapors to give it an attractive sheen. Quartz is the most common material identified as the mystical substance maban in Australian Aboriginal mythology . It is found regularly in passage tomb cemeteries in Europe in
5547-416: Is often used in medical and sun-ray lamps and some non-laser lamps. A better alternative is a cerium -doped quartz; it does not suffer from solarization and has higher efficiency, as part of the absorbed ultraviolet is reradiated as visible via fluorescence . Its cutoff is at about 380 nm. Conversely, when ultraviolet is called for, a synthetic quartz is used as the envelope; it is the most expensive of
5676-413: Is often used in the construction of flashtubes. The material of the envelope provides another limit for the output power; 1 mm thick fused quartz has a limit of 200 W/cm , synthetic quartz of same thickness can run up to 240 W/cm . Other glasses such as borosilicate generally have less than half the power loading capacity of quartz. Aging lamps require some derating, due to increased energy absorption in
5805-449: Is required, lanthanum -alloyed tungsten, and are often machined to provide extra surface area to cope with power loading. DC arc lamps often have a cathode with a sharp tip, to help keep the arc away from the glass and to control temperature. Flashtubes usually have a cathode with a flattened radius, to reduce the incidence of hot spots and decrease sputter caused by peak currents, which may be in excess of 1000 amperes. Electrode design
5934-729: Is the Spruce Pine Gem Mine in Spruce Pine, North Carolina , United States. Quartz may also be found in Caldoveiro Peak , in Asturias , Spain. By the 1930s, the electronics industry had become dependent on quartz crystals. The only source of suitable crystals was Brazil; however, World War II disrupted the supplies from Brazil, so nations attempted to synthesize quartz on a commercial scale. German mineralogist Richard Nacken (1884–1971) achieved some success during
6063-475: Is the leading producer of citrine, with much of its production coming from the state of Rio Grande do Sul . The name is derived from the Latin word citrina which means "yellow" and is also the origin of the word " citron ". Sometimes citrine and amethyst can be found together in the same crystal, which is then referred to as ametrine . Citrine has been referred to as the "merchant's stone" or "money stone", due to
6192-505: Is the portion of the electromagnetic spectrum corresponding to the band between 200 and 280 nm . Pulsed light works with xenon lamps that can produce flashes several times per second. Disinfection robots use pulsed UV light. A recent application of flashlamps is photonic curing . The flashtube was invented by Harold Edgerton in the 1930s as a means to take sharp photographs of moving objects. Flashtubes were mainly used for strobe lights in scientific studies, but eventually began to take
6321-410: Is the same phenomenon that gives neon signs their characteristic color. However, neon signs emit red light because of extremely low current-densities when compared to those seen in flashtubes, which favors spectral lines of longer wavelengths. Higher current-densities tend to favor shorter wavelengths. The light from xenon, in a neon sign, likewise is rather violet. The spectrum emitted by flashtubes
6450-685: Is the second most abundant mineral in Earth 's continental crust , behind feldspar . Quartz exists in two forms, the normal α-quartz and the high-temperature β-quartz, both of which are chiral . The transformation from α-quartz to β-quartz takes place abruptly at 573 °C (846 K; 1,063 °F). Since the transformation is accompanied by a significant change in volume, it can easily induce microfracturing of ceramics or rocks passing through this temperature threshold. There are many different varieties of quartz, several of which are classified as gemstones . Since antiquity, varieties of quartz have been
6579-439: Is typically done using special capacitors, the shortest wires available, or electrical-leads with a lot of surface area but thin cross-sections. For extremely fast systems, low-inductance axial-leads, such as copper tubing, plastic-core wires, or even hollowed electrodes, may be used to decrease the total-system inductance. Dye lasers need very short pulses and sometimes use axial flashtubes, which have an annular cross section with
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#17327731990836708-460: Is used for extremely short pulses, the spark streamers may still be in contact with the glass when the full current-load passes through the tube, causing wall ablation , or in extreme cases, cracking or even explosion of the lamp. However, because very short pulses often call for very high voltage and low capacitance, to keep the current density from rising too high, some microsecond flashtubes are triggered by simply "over-volting", that is, by applying
6837-412: Is used for very accurate measurements of very small mass changes in the quartz crystal microbalance and in thin-film thickness monitors . Almost all the industrial demand for quartz crystal (used primarily in electronics) is met with synthetic quartz produced by the hydrothermal process. However, synthetic crystals are less prized for use as gemstones. The popularity of crystal healing has increased
6966-491: The cooling is the limit. Discharge durations for common flashtubes range from 0.1 microsecond to tens of milliseconds , and can have repetition rates of hundreds of hertz . Flash duration can be carefully controlled with the use of an inductor . The flash that emanates from a xenon flashtube may be so intense that it can ignite flammable materials within a short distance of the tube. Carbon nanotubes are particularly susceptible to this spontaneous ignition when exposed to
7095-524: The hexagonal crystal system above 573 °C (846 K; 1,063 °F). The ideal crystal shape is a six-sided prism terminating with six-sided pyramid-like rhombohedrons at each end. In nature, quartz crystals are often twinned (with twin right-handed and left-handed quartz crystals), distorted, or so intergrown with adjacent crystals of quartz or other minerals as to only show part of this shape, or to lack obvious crystal faces altogether and appear massive . Well-formed crystals typically form as
7224-544: The ultraviolet ) and short pulse widths, flashtubes are also ideally suited as light sources for pumping atoms in a laser to excited states where they can be stimulated to emit coherent , monochromatic light. Proper selection of both the filler gas and current density is crucial, so that the maximum radiated output-energy is concentrated in the bands that are the best absorbed by the lasing medium ; e.g. krypton flashtubes are more suitable than xenon flashtubes for pumping Nd:YAG lasers , as krypton emission in near infrared
7353-879: The 14th century in Middle High German and in East Central German and which came from the Polish dialect term twardy , which corresponds to the Czech term tvrdý ("hard"). Some sources, however, attribute the word's origin to the Saxon word Querkluftertz , meaning cross-vein ore . The Ancient Greeks referred to quartz as κρύσταλλος ( krustallos ) derived from the Ancient Greek κρύος ( kruos ) meaning "icy cold", because some philosophers (including Theophrastus ) understood
7482-620: The 1930s and 1940s. After the war, many laboratories attempted to grow large quartz crystals. In the United States, the U.S. Army Signal Corps contracted with Bell Laboratories and with the Brush Development Company of Cleveland, Ohio to synthesize crystals following Nacken's lead. (Prior to World War II, Brush Development produced piezoelectric crystals for record players.) By 1948, Brush Development had grown crystals that were 1.5 inches (3.8 cm) in diameter,
7611-457: The Earth's crust exposed to high temperatures, thereby damaging materials containing quartz and degrading their physical and mechanical properties. Although many of the varietal names historically arose from the color of the mineral, current scientific naming schemes refer primarily to the microstructure of the mineral. Color is a secondary identifier for the cryptocrystalline minerals, although it
7740-466: The Middle East the different varieties of quartz were the most commonly used for the various types of jewelry and hardstone carving , including engraved gems and cameo gems , rock crystal vases , and extravagant vessels. The tradition continued to produce objects that were very highly valued until the mid-19th century, when it largely fell from fashion except in jewelry. Cameo technique exploits
7869-418: The UV. Heavier gases exhibit higher resistance, and therefore, have a higher value for K o . Impedance, being defined as the resistance required to change energy into work, is higher for heavier gases, and as such, the heavier gases are much more efficient than the lighter ones. Helium and neon are far too light to produce an efficient flash. Krypton can be as good as 40% efficient, but requires up to
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#17327731990837998-441: The air that workers breathe. Crystalline silica of respirable size is a recognized human carcinogen and may lead to other diseases of the lungs such as silicosis and pulmonary fibrosis . Not all varieties of quartz are naturally occurring. Some clear quartz crystals can be treated using heat or gamma-irradiation to induce color where it would not otherwise have occurred naturally. Susceptibility to such treatments depends on
8127-407: The anode at a slower rate, filling some localized pressure differential created by the ions. At normal pressures this motion is in very short distances, because the particles interact and bump into each other, and, exchanging electrons, they reverse direction. Thus, during the pulse neutral atoms are constantly ionizing and recombining, emitting a photon each time, relaying electrons from the cathode to
8256-471: The anode. The greater the number of ion transitions for each electron; the better the conversion efficiency will be, so longer tubes or higher pressures both help increase the efficiency of the lamp. During the pulse, skin effect causes free electrons to gather near the inner wall, creating an electron sheath around the plasma. This makes the area electro-negative and helps to keep it cool. The skin effect also increases inductance by inducing eddy currents in
8385-412: The arc becomes opaque, and much of the radiation from within the arc can be absorbed before reaching the surface, impairing output efficiency. Due to its high-efficiency, white output, xenon is used extensively for photographic applications, despite its great expense. In lasers, spectral-line emission is usually favored, as these lines tend to better match absorption lines of the lasing media. Krypton
8514-407: The bands of color in onyx and other varieties. Efforts to synthesize quartz began in the mid-nineteenth century as scientists attempted to create minerals under laboratory conditions that mimicked the conditions in which the minerals formed in nature: German geologist Karl Emil von Schafhäutl (1803–1890) was the first person to synthesize quartz when in 1845 he created microscopic quartz crystals in
8643-432: The capacitor is delivered to the electrodes using a thyristor or a spark gap . This type of triggering is used mainly in very fast rise time systems, typically those that discharge in the microsecond regime, such as used in high-speed, stop-motion photography or dye lasers . The simmering spark-streamer causes the arc to develop in the exact center of the lamp, increasing the lifetime dramatically. If external triggering
8772-440: The cathode and the anode, when the internal spark streamers bridge the electrodes the capacitor will discharge through the ionized gas, heating the xenon to a high enough temperature for the emission light. Series triggering is more common in high powered, water-cooled flashtubes, such as those found in lasers . The high-voltage leads of the trigger-transformer are connected to the flashtube in series, (one lead to an electrode and
8901-426: The center of the arc and impacting the inner wall of the tube. If the energy level is low enough, a tap against the glass is all that will be heard. However, if the energy level used equals the "explosion energy" rating of the lamp, the impacting shock wave will fracture the glass, rupturing the tube. The resulting explosion creates a loud, sonic shock-wave, and may throw shattered glass several feet. The explosion energy
9030-427: The central plasma. Bound-bound transitions occur when the ions and neutral atoms collide, transferring an electron from the atom to the ion. This method predominates at low current-densities, and is responsible for producing the spectral-line emission. Free-bound transitions happen when an ion captures a free electron. This method produces the continuum emission, and is more prominent at higher current-densities. Some of
9159-444: The chirality. Above 573 °C (846 K; 1,063 °F), α-quartz in P 3 1 21 becomes the more symmetric hexagonal P 6 4 22 (space group 181), and α-quartz in P 3 2 21 goes to space group P 6 2 22 (no. 180). These space groups are truly chiral (they each belong to the 11 enantiomorphous pairs). Both α-quartz and β-quartz are examples of chiral crystal structures composed of achiral building blocks (SiO 4 tetrahedra in
9288-503: The continuum is also produced when an electron accelerates toward an ion, called free-free transitions, producing bremsstrahlung radiation. Bremsstrahlung radiation increases with increasing energy density , and causes a shift toward the blue and ultraviolet end of the spectrum. The only real electrical-limit to how short a pulse can be is the total-system inductance , including that of the capacitor, wires, and lamp itself. Short-pulse flashes require that all inductance be minimized. This
9417-423: The continuum radiation dominates, and output center shifts toward the ultraviolet. As current densities become even higher, visually, xenon's output spectrum will begin to settle on that of a blackbody radiator with a color temperature of 9800 kelvins (a rather sky-blue shade of white). Except in cases where intense UV light is needed, such as water decontamination, blackbody radiation is usually not desired because
9546-466: The crystal structure. Prase is a green variety of quartz. The green color is caused by inclusions of amphibole . Prasiolite , also known as vermarine , is a variety of quartz that is green in color. The green is caused by iron ions. It is a rare mineral in nature and is typically found with amethyst; most "prasiolite" is not natural – it has been artificially produced by heating of amethyst. Since 1950 , almost all natural prasiolite has come from
9675-433: The crystals. Tridymite and cristobalite are high-temperature polymorphs of SiO 2 that occur in high-silica volcanic rocks. Coesite is a denser polymorph of SiO 2 found in some meteorite impact sites and in metamorphic rocks formed at pressures greater than those typical of the Earth's crust. Stishovite is a yet denser and higher-pressure polymorph of SiO 2 found in some meteorite impact sites. Moganite
9804-413: The current density will increase. Compensating for this usually requires lowering the capacitance as pulse duration decreases, and then raising the voltage proportionately in order to maintain a high enough energy-level. However, as pulse duration decreases, so does the "explosion energy" rating of the lamp, so the energy level must also be decreased to avoid destroying the lamp. The amount of power loading
9933-409: The degree of sputter may vary considerably from lamp to lamp. Therefore, it is impossible to predict the lifetime accurately at low energy-levels. At higher energy-levels, wall ablation becomes the main process of wear. The electrical arc slowly erodes the inner wall of the tube, forming microscopic cracks that give the glass a frosted appearance. The ablation releases oxygen from the glass, increasing
10062-405: The desired spectrum, and let the lamp's resistance determine the necessary combination of voltage and capacitance to produce it. The resistance in flashtubes varies greatly, depending on pressure, shape, dead volume, current density, time, and flash duration, and therefore, is usually referred to as impedance . The most common symbol used for lamp impedance is K o , which is expressed as ohms per
10191-408: The duration of the flash that is emitted by a xenon flashtube can be accurately controlled, and due to the high intensity of the light, xenon flashtubes are commonly used as photographic strobe lights . Xenon flashtubes are also used in very high-speed or "stop-motion" photography , which was pioneered by Harold Edgerton in the 1930s. Because they can generate bright, attention-getting flashes with
10320-405: The electrodes are not of a sufficient diameter to handle the peak currents they may produce too much resistance, rapidly heating up and thermally expanding . If the electrodes heat much faster than the glass, the lamp may crack or even shatter at the ends. The closer a flashtube operates to its explosion energy, the greater the risk becomes for catastrophic failure. At 50% of the explosion energy,
10449-400: The electrodes are usually made of tungsten , which has the highest melting point of any metal, to handle the thermionic emission of electrons. Cathodes are often made from porous tungsten filled with a barium compound, which gives low work function ; the structure of cathode has to be tailored for the application. Anodes are usually made from pure tungsten, or, when good machinability
10578-415: The emitted light. As they recombine with their lost electrons they immediately drop back to a lower energy-state, releasing photons in the process. The methods of transferring energy occur in three separate ways, called "bound-bound", "free-bound", and "free-free" transitions. Within the plasma, positive ions accelerate toward the cathode while electrons accelerate toward the anode. Neutral atoms move toward
10707-405: The ends of the lamp, and across the exposed ends of the electrodes as well, so the deionized water is used to prevent a short circuit. Above 15 W/cm forced air cooling is required; liquid cooling if in a confined space. Liquid cooling is generally necessary above 30 W/cm . Thinner walls can survive higher average-power loads due to lower mechanical strain across the thickness of the material, which
10836-408: The flash duration, but prevents the circuit from being used in very fast discharge applications. The triggering can generally take place with a lower voltage at the capacitor than is required for external triggering. However, the trigger-transformer becomes part of the flash circuit, and couples the triggering-circuit to the flash energy. Therefore, because the trigger-transformer has very low impedance,
10965-415: The form of air, has been used in flashtubes in home made dye lasers, but the nitrogen and oxygen present form chemical reactions with the electrodes, and themselves, causing premature wear and the need to adjust the pressure for each flash. Some research has been done on mixing gases to alter the spectral output. The effect on the output spectrum is negligible, but the effect on efficiency is great. Adding
11094-440: The gas, superimposed on a background of continuum radiation. With all gases, low current-densities produce mostly spectral lines, with the highest output being concentrated in the near-IR between 650 and 1000 nm. Krypton's strongest peaks are around 760 and 810 nm. Argon has many strong peaks at 670, 710, 760, 820, 860, and 920 nm. Neon has peaks around 650, 700, 850, and 880 nm. As current densities become higher,
11223-422: The glass can handle is the major mechanical limit. Even if the amount of energy ( joules ) that is used remains constant, electrical power ( wattage ) will increase in inverse proportion to a decrease in discharge time. Therefore, energy must be decreased along with the pulse duration, to keep the pulsed power levels from rising too high. Quartz glass (1 millimeter thick per 1 second discharge) can usually withstand
11352-403: The glass due to solarization and sputtered deposits. The electrodes protrude into each end of the tube, and are sealed to the glass using a few different methods. "Ribbon seals" use thin strips of molybdenum foil bonded directly to the glass, which are very durable, but are limited in the amount of current that can pass through. "Solder seals" bond the glass to the electrode with a solder for
11481-442: The hands. This idea persisted until at least the 17th century. He also knew of the ability of quartz to split light into a spectrum . In the 17th century, Nicolas Steno 's study of quartz paved the way for modern crystallography . He discovered that regardless of a quartz crystal's size or shape, its long prism faces always joined at a perfect 60° angle. Quartz belongs to the trigonal crystal system at room temperature, and to
11610-441: The higher the pressure, the greater the output efficiency. Xenon is used mostly because of its good efficiency, converting nearly 50% of electrical energy into light. Krypton, on the other hand, is only about 40% efficient, but at low currents is a better match to the absorption spectrum of Nd:YAG lasers . A major factor affecting efficiency is the amount of gas behind the electrodes, or the "dead volume". A higher dead volume leads to
11739-437: The impurities of phosphate and aluminium that formed crystalline rose quartz, unlike the iron and microscopic dumortierite fibers that formed rose quartz. Smoky quartz is a gray, translucent version of quartz. It ranges in clarity from almost complete transparency to a brownish-gray crystal that is almost opaque. Some can also be black. The translucency results from natural irradiation acting on minute traces of aluminum in
11868-473: The inner wall. Sputter occurs when the energy level is very low, below 15% of the explosion energy, or when the pulse duration is very long. Sputter is the vaporization of metal from the cathode, which is redeposited on the walls of the lamp, blocking the light output. Because the cathode is more emissive than the anode , the flashtube is polarized, and connecting the lamp to the power source incorrectly will quickly ruin it. However, even if connected properly,
11997-399: The invisible IR spectral lines around 820, 900, and 1000 nm. Low current-densities for flashtubes are generally less than 1000 A/cm . Higher current-densities begin to produce continuum emission. Spectral lines broaden and become less dominant as light is produced across the spectrum, usually peaking, or "centered", on a certain wavelength. Optimum output-efficiency in the visual range
12126-436: The lamp may produce several thousand flashes before exploding. At 60% of the explosion energy, the lamp will usually fail in less than a hundred. If the lamp is operated below 30% of the explosion energy the risk of catastrophic failure becomes very low. The methods of failure then become those that reduce the output efficiency and affect the ability to trigger the lamp. The processes affecting these are sputter and ablation of
12255-433: The lamp to self-flash. At such low pressures, the efficiency of the flash would normally be very low. However, because of the low pressure, the particles have room to accelerate to very high speeds, and the magnetic forces expand the arc so that the bulk of its plasma becomes concentrated at the surface, bombarding the glass. The bombardment ablates (vaporizes) large amounts of quartz from the inner wall. This ablation creates
12384-450: The lamp to shatter, or they can be gradual, reducing the performance of the lamp below a usable rating. Catastrophic failure can occur from two separate mechanisms: energy and heat . When too much energy is used for the pulse duration, structural failure of the glass envelope can occur. Flashtubes produce an electrical arc flash contained in a glass tube. As the arc develops, a supersonic shock-wave forms, traveling radially from
12513-407: The lamp's self-flash threshold. An extremely high voltage pulse, (usually between 2000 and 150,000 volts), the "trigger pulse", is applied either directly to or very near the glass envelope. (Water-cooled flashtubes sometimes apply this pulse directly to the cooling water, and often to the housing of the unit as well, so care must be taken with this type of system.) The short, high voltage pulse creates
12642-452: The largest at that time. By the 1950s, hydrothermal synthesis techniques were producing synthetic quartz crystals on an industrial scale, and today virtually all the quartz crystal used in the modern electronics industry is synthetic. An early use of the piezoelectricity of quartz crystals was in phonograph pickups. One of the most common piezoelectric uses of quartz today is as a crystal oscillator . The quartz oscillator or resonator
12771-518: The latest additions by Sony Ericsson to the Symbian OS family of phones. Afterwards, they were succeeded by the Sony Xperia line of Android Smartphones. Xenon flash A flashtube ( flashlamp ) produces an electrostatic discharge with an extremely intense, incoherent , full-spectrum white light for a very short time. A flashtube is a glass tube with an electrode at each end and
12900-440: The light from a flashtube. Similar effects may be exploited for use in aesthetic or medical procedures known as intense pulsed light (IPL) treatments. IPL can be used for treatments such as hair removal and destroying lesions or moles . The lifetime of a flashtube depends on both the energy level used for the lamp in proportion to its explosion energy, and on the pulse duration of the lamp. Failures can be catastrophic, causing
13029-517: The location from which the quartz was mined. Prasiolite, an olive colored material, is produced by heat treatment; natural prasiolite has also been observed in Lower Silesia in Poland. Although citrine occurs naturally, the majority is the result of heat-treating amethyst or smoky quartz. Carnelian has been heat-treated to deepen its color since prehistoric times. Because natural quartz
13158-459: The main flash. This greatly decreases the rise time. It also reduces the shock wave and makes less noise during operation, vastly increasing the lifetime of the lamp. It is especially effective on very fast-discharge applications, allowing the arc to expand faster and better fill the tube. It is very often used with simmer voltage and sometimes with series triggering, but rarely used with external triggering. Prepulse techniques are most commonly used in
13287-400: The materials, but it is not susceptible to solarization and its cutoff is at 160 nm. The power level of the lamps is rated in watts/area, total electrical input power divided by the lamp's inner wall surface. Cooling of the electrodes and the lamp envelope is of high importance at high power levels. Air cooling is sufficient for lower average power levels. High power lamps are cooled with
13416-421: The mineral dumortierite within quartz pieces often result in silky-appearing splotches with a blue hue. Shades of purple or gray sometimes also are present. "Dumortierite quartz" (sometimes called "blue quartz") will sometimes feature contrasting light and dark color zones across the material. "Blue quartz" is a minor gemstone. Citrine is a variety of quartz whose color ranges from pale yellow to brown due to
13545-571: The mineral to be a form of supercooled ice. Today, the term rock crystal is sometimes used as an alternative name for transparent coarsely crystalline quartz. Roman naturalist Pliny the Elder believed quartz to be water ice , permanently frozen after great lengths of time. He supported this idea by saying that quartz is found near glaciers in the Alps, but not on volcanic mountains, and that large quartz crystals were fashioned into spheres to cool
13674-501: The most commonly used minerals in the making of jewelry and hardstone carvings , especially in Europe and Asia. Quartz is the mineral defining the value of 7 on the Mohs scale of hardness , a qualitative scratch method for determining the hardness of a material to abrasion. The word "quartz" is derived from the German word Quarz , which had the same form in the first half of
13803-445: The other to the capacitor), so that the flash travels through both the transformer and the lamp. The trigger pulse forms a spark inside the lamp, without exposing the trigger voltage to the outside of the lamp. The advantages are better insulation, more reliable triggering, and an arc that tends to develop well away from the glass, but at a much higher cost. The series-triggering transformer also acts as an inductor . This helps to control
13932-425: The output of continuum radiation will increase more than the spectral-line radiation at a rate 20% greater, and output center will shift toward the visual spectrum. At greybody current-densities there is only a slight difference in the spectrum emitted by various gases. At very high current-densities, all gases will begin to operate as blackbody radiators, with spectral outputs resembling a blue giant star, centered in
14061-426: The phone has a sliding lock button and a covered slot for a MicroSD card. The front of the phone is dominated by a 3.5-inch (89 mm), 16:9 ratio 360x640 TFT resistive touchscreen. There is also a front-facing camera for video calling. At the bottom of the touchscreen are three small buttons: green (left), white (centre), and red (right). In terms of software, Satio uses the Symbian OS 9.4 operating system, which
14190-401: The place of chemical and powder flashbulbs and flash lamps in mainstream photography. Because electrical arcs could be made that were much faster than mechanical-shutter speeds, early high-speed photographs were taken with an open-air, electrical-arc discharge, called spark photography, helping to remove blur from moving objects. This was typically done with the shutter locked open while in
14319-414: The plasma resistivity in flashtubes is inversely proportional to the square root of current density. As the arc develops, the lamp experiences a period of negative resistance , causing both the resistance and voltage to decrease as the current increases. This occurs until the plasma comes into contact with the inner wall. When this happens, the voltage becomes proportional to the square root of current, and
14448-494: The presence of impurities which change the molecular orbitals, causing some electronic transitions to take place in the visible spectrum causing colors. The most important distinction between types of quartz is that of macrocrystalline (individual crystals visible to the unaided eye) and the microcrystalline or cryptocrystalline varieties ( aggregates of crystals visible only under high magnification). The cryptocrystalline varieties are either translucent or mostly opaque, while
14577-403: The present case). The transformation between α- and β-quartz only involves a comparatively minor rotation of the tetrahedra with respect to one another, without a change in the way they are linked. However, there is a significant change in volume during this transition, and this can result in significant microfracturing in ceramics during firing, in ornamental stone after a fire and in rocks of
14706-410: The pressure beyond an operable level. This causes triggering problems, known as " jitter ." Above 30%, the ablation may cause enough wear to rupture the lamp. However, at energy levels greater than 15%, the lifetime can be calculated with a fair degree of accuracy. When operated below 30% of the explosion energy, flashtube lifetime is generally between a few million to tens of millions of flashes. As
14835-417: The proper large bore, water-cooled flashtube, several kilowatts of average-power output can be obtained. The electrical requirements for a flashtube can vary, depending on the desired results. The usual method is to first determine the pulse duration, the maximum amount of energy tolerable at that duration (explosion energy), and the safe amount of operating energy. Then pick a current density that will emit
14964-406: The pulse duration, is delivered just a few thousandths to a few millionths of a second before the main flash. The prepulse heats the gas, producing a dim, short-lived afterglow that results from free electrons and ionized particles that remain after the pulse shuts down. If the main flash is initiated before these particles can recombine, this provides a good quantity of ionized particles to be used by
15093-478: The pumping of dye lasers, greatly increasing the conversion efficiency . However, it has also been shown to increase the efficiency of other lasers with longer fluorescence lifetimes (allowing longer pulses), such as Nd:YAG or titanium sapphire , by creating pulses with almost square waveforms . Ablative flashtubes are triggered by under-pressurizing. Ablative flashtubes are typically constructed using quartz tubing and one or both electrodes hollowed out, allowing
15222-510: The quartz. Additionally, there is a rare type of pink quartz (also frequently called crystalline rose quartz) with color that is thought to be caused by trace amounts of phosphate or aluminium . The color in crystals is apparently photosensitive and subject to fading. The first crystals were found in a pegmatite found near Rumford , Maine , US, and in Minas Gerais , Brazil. The crystals found are more transparent and euhedral, due to
15351-455: The resistance in the plasma becomes stable for the remainder of the flash. It is this value which is defined as K o . However, as the arc develops the gas expands, and calculations for K o do not take into account the dead volume, which leads to a lower pressure increase. Therefore, any calculation of K o is merely an approximation of lamp impedance. As with all ionized gases, xenon flashtubes emit light in various spectral lines . This
15480-418: The ringing, allowing the lamp to shut down at the correct time. The limits to long pulse durations are the number of transferred electrons to the anode, sputter caused by ion bombardment at the cathode, and the temperature gradients of the glass. Pulses that are too long can vaporize large amounts of metal from the cathode, while overheating the glass will cause it to crack lengthwise. For continuous operation
15609-430: The semiconductor junction. This type of system is used frequently in high average-power laser systems, and can produce pulses ranging from 500 microseconds to over 20 milliseconds. It can be used with any of the triggering techniques, like external and series, and can produce square wave pulses. It can even be used with simmer voltage to produce a "modulated" continuous wave output, with repetition rates over 300 hertz. With
15738-438: The square root of amps (ohms(amps ). K o is used to calculate the amount of input voltage and capacitance needed to emit a desired spectrum, by controlling the current density. K o is determined by the internal diameter, arc length, and gas type of the lamp and, to a lesser extent, by fill pressure. The resistance in flashtubes is not constant, but quickly drops as current density increases. In 1965, John H. Goncz showed that
15867-404: The square root of discharge time. Failure from heat is usually caused by excessively long pulse-durations, high average-power levels, or inadequate electrode-size. The longer the pulse; the more of its intense heat will be transferred to the glass. When the inner wall of the tube gets too hot while the outer wall is still cold, this temperature gradient can cause the lamp to crack. Similarly, if
15996-400: The transformer, triggering-circuit, and silicon controlled rectifier (SCR) must be able to handle very high peak-currents, often in excess of 1500 amps. Simmer-voltage triggering is the least common method. In this technique, the capacitor voltage is not initially applied to the electrodes, but instead, a high voltage spark streamer is maintained between the electrodes. The high current from
16125-414: The transparent varieties tend to be macrocrystalline. Chalcedony is a cryptocrystalline form of silica consisting of fine intergrowths of both quartz, and its monoclinic polymorph moganite . Other opaque gemstone varieties of quartz, or mixed rocks including quartz, often including contrasting bands or patterns of color, are agate , carnelian or sard, onyx , heliotrope , and jasper . Amethyst
16254-447: The use of very expensive gases like krypton or xenon. The most common gas used in an ablative flashtube is air , although sometimes cheap argon is also used. The flash usually must be very short to prevent too much heat from transferring to the glass. However, because nearly all the plasma is concentrated at the surface, the lamps have very low inductance and flashes can often be shorter than a normal lamp of comparative size. The flash from
16383-420: Was first developed by Walter Guyton Cady in 1921. George Washington Pierce designed and patented quartz crystal oscillators in 1923. The quartz clock is a familiar device using the mineral. Warren Marrison created the first quartz oscillator clock based on the work of Cady and Pierce in 1927. The resonant frequency of a quartz crystal oscillator is changed by mechanically loading it, and this principle
16512-541: Was found near Itapore , Goiaz , Brazil; it measured approximately 6.1 m × 1.5 m × 1.5 m (20 ft × 5 ft × 5 ft) and weighed over 39,900 kg (88,000 lb). Quartz is extracted from open pit mines . Miners occasionally use explosives to expose deep pockets of quartz. More frequently, bulldozers and backhoes are used to remove soil and clay and expose quartz veins, which are then worked using hand tools. Care must be taken to avoid sudden temperature changes that may damage
16641-552: Was withdrawn from sale in November 2009 by two major British retailers due to complaints from customers. However, the problem was found only in UK editions of the phone and was probably caused by carrier-specific customizations. The following software update released by Sony Ericsson provided a fix and the phone was back for sale at those two retailers. Sony Ericsson Satio, then Sony Ericsson Vivaz and finally Sony Ericsson Vivaz pro are
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