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40-400: In the winter of 1993, miners came across a body with long hair, a beard and some artifacts . These included the remains of a body, a lower leg inside a leather boot, three iron knives, a woollen half trouser, a silver needle , a sling , parts of a leather rope, a grindstone, a walnut, some pottery shards, some patterned textile fragments, and a few broken bones. The body had been buried in

80-702: A blend of many different cultural traditions. It is said that 70 percent of the site has been ruined because of looters. Based on images from satellites in 2014, the mud-brick walls have been left cratered. Ventarron is an archaeological site in the Lambayeque region in Northern Peru . It is the location of a temple built roughly around 2000 BCE, making it one of the oldest archaeological sites in South America . The site has been looted repeatedly, mostly due to low surveillance and resources to protect

120-427: A chronological timeline for past occurrences at the site. Modern archaeologists take care to distinguish material culture from ethnicity , which is often more complex, as expressed by Carol Kramer in the dictum "pots are not people." Artifact analysis is determined by what type of artifact is being examined, the best. Lithic analysis refers to analyzing artifacts that are created with stones and are often in

160-415: A chronological timeline is a crucial part of artifact analysis. The different types of analyses above can all assist in the process of artifact dating. The major types of dating include relative dating , historical dating and typology . Relative dating occurs when artifacts are placed in a specific order in relation to one another while historical dating occurs for periods of written evidence; relative dating

200-513: A part of material culture . Artifacts can come from any archaeological context or source such as: Examples include stone tools , pottery vessels, metal objects such as weapons and items of personal adornment such as buttons , jewelry and clothing. Bones that show signs of human modification are also examples. Natural objects, such as fire cracked rocks from a hearth or plant material used for food, are classified by archaeologists as ecofacts rather than as artifacts. Artifacts exist as

240-408: A result of behavioral and transformational processes. A behavioral process involves acquiring raw materials , manufacturing these for a specific purpose and then discarding after use. Transformational processes begin at the end of behavioral processes; this is when the artifact is changed by nature and/or humans after it has been deposited. Both of these processes are significant factors in evaluating

280-606: Is the general term used in archaeology, while in museums the equivalent general term is normally "object", and in art history perhaps artwork or a more specific term such as "carving". The same item may be called all or any of these in different contexts, and more specific terms will be used when talking about individual objects, or groups of similar ones. Artifacts exist in many different forms and can sometimes be confused with ecofacts and features ; all three of these can sometimes be found together at archaeological sites. They can also exist in different types of context depending on

320-438: Is the major source of artifacts for the antiquities market . Looting typically involves either the illegal exportation of artifacts from their country of origin or the domestic distribution of looted goods. Looting has been linked to the economic and political stability of the possessing nation, with levels of looting increasing during times of crisis, but it has been known to occur during peacetimes and some looters take part in

360-442: Is when artifacts are dug up from sites and collected in private or sold before they are able to be excavated and analyzed through formal scientific archaeology. The debate is centered around the difference in beliefs between collectors and archaeologists. Archaeologists are focused on excavation, context and lab work when it comes to artifacts, while collectors are motivated by varying personal desires. This brings many to ask themselves

400-432: The black market . Much of Egypt 's cultural heritage has been and remains under threat of pillage. Tomb raiders and looters have been attempting to steal from Pharaonic sites since such structures were built, and the 2011 Arab Spring revolution has only since exacerbated the problem. Three regions have been especially hit hard since the revolution, with some estimates citing a five hundred percent increase in looting in

440-413: The context of an artifact. The context of an artifact can be broken into two categories: primary context and secondary context. A matrix is a physical setting within which an artifact exists, and a provenience refers to a specific location within a matrix. When an artifact is found in the realm of primary context, the matrix and provenience have not been changed by transformational processes. However,

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480-661: The 7th Earl of Elgin looted the Marbles, but others say that he received permission from the Ottoman authorities. The Elgin Marbles were removed from Greece and brought to London. The Marbles were bought from the 7th Earl of Elgin by Great Britain and they are now displayed in the British Museum. It is a controversial topic as to who the Elgin Marbles belong to. The Greek government wants the Marbles back because at

520-842: The Euphronios Krater in 1972 for one million dollars. Eventually, the Krater was returned to the Italian Government and the Krater was brought to the Villa Giulia Museum in Rome. Illegal excavations leave distinctive pits across the surface of an archaeological site which bear no resemblance to the surface changes made by official, methodological archaeological work. Satellite imaging is one method employed to help identify sites of looting, both by detecting recent lootings and by corroborating reports from locals on

560-475: The Euphronios Krater is that the Krater was looted by grave robbers and then sold to Giacomo Medici who is an Italian art dealer who has been convicted of receiving and exporting stolen objects. The Krater is said to have then been sold to Robert Hecht who is an American antiques dealer and then sold to the Metropolitan Museum of Art . The Metropolitan Museum of Art is said to have purchased

600-609: The European conquest of Africa – has also raised ethical questions. Pan-African activists such as Mwazulu Diyabanza and the Front Multi Culturel Anti-Spoliation (Multicultural Front Against Pillaging) have taken direct action against European museums, aiming to restitute items they believe to belong to Africa. Archaeological looting Archaeological looting is the illicit removal of artifacts from an archaeological site . Such looting

640-514: The Ministry of Industries and Mines canceled the mining permit. After archaeological studies which included C14 dating of different samples of bones and textiles, the Salt Man was dated to about 1,700 years ago. By testing a sample of hair, the blood group B+ was determined. Three-dimensional scans which were modeled by a scientific team led by Jalal Jalal Shokouhi show fractures around

680-659: The Swiss University of Zurich for thorough investigations. A scientific long-term project was started, supported by Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG) and British funds. Four corpses, including a teenager and a woman, are kept at the Archeology Museum (Zolfaghari House) in Zanjan. A sixth corpse found in the excavation campaign 2010 was left in place at the salt mine. Three hundred pieces of fabric were found, some of which retained designs and dyes. In 2008,

720-538: The archaeological question, "Who owns the past?" There are also ethical issues over the display of artifacts in museums which have been taken from other countries in questionable circumstances, for example the display of the Parthenon (Elgin) Marbles by the British Museum . The display of objects belonging to indigenous peoples of non-European countries by European museums – particularly those taken during

760-588: The bank of the Orontes river . It is an important archaeological site, with several notable remains such as the Great Colonnade and a sizable Roman theater. In the chaos created by the Syrian civil war , the site has been looted and damaged extensively, as evidenced by satellite imagery of the area. Dura-Europos is an ancient city located in modern-day southeast Syria covering about 140 acres of land. It

800-407: The differences between actual human-made lithic artifact and geofacts – naturally occurring lithics that resemble human-made tools. It is possible to authenticate artifacts by examining the general characteristics attributed to human-made tools and local characteristics of the site. Artifacts, features and ecofacts can all be located together at sites. Sites may include different arrangements of

840-445: The distribution of goods. The following lab techniques all contribute to the process of lithic analysis: petrographic analysis, neutron activation , x-ray fluorescence , particle-induced x-ray emission , individual flake analysis and mass analysis. Another type of artifact analysis is ceramic analysis, which is based around the archaeological study of pottery . This type of analysis can help archaeologists gain information on

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880-479: The eye and other injuries which occurred before death, resulting from a hard blow. Visual characteristics included long hair and a beard; a golden earring in the left ear indicated that he was likely a person of rank or influence. The reason for his presence and death in the salt mine of Chehrabad remains a mystery. Three of the saltmen are dated to the Parthian (247 BCE–224 CE) and Sassanid (224–651 CE) eras, and

920-442: The form of animal remains. Just as with lithic artifacts, faunal remains are extremely common within the field of archaeology. Faunal analysis provides insight to trade due to animals being exchanged in different markets over time and being traded over long distances. Faunal remains can also provide information on social status, ethnic distinctions and dieting from previous complex societies . Dating artifacts and providing them with

960-577: The form of tools. Stone artifacts occur often throughout prehistoric times and are, therefore, a crucial aspect in answering archaeological questions about the past. On the surface, lithic artifacts can help archaeologists study how technology has developed throughout history by showing a variety of tools and manufacturing techniques from different periods of time. However, even deeper questions can be answered through this type of analysis; these questions can revolve around topics that include how societies were organized and structured in terms of socialization and

1000-551: The knowledge of gastrointestinal pathogens in the Near East. Artifact (archaeology) An artifact or artefact ( British English ) is a general term for an item made or given shape by humans, such as a tool or a work of art, especially an object of archaeological interest. In archaeology , the word has become a term of particular nuance; it is defined as an object recovered by archaeological endeavor, including cultural artifacts (of cultural interest). "Artifact"

1040-922: The matrix and provenience are changed by transformational processes when referring to secondary context. Artifacts exist in both contexts, and this is taken into account during the analysis of them. Another important type of context for archeologists, particularly from an art history perspective, is the term provenance , or the more general history of an artifact's ownership, location, and importance. Artifacts are distinguished from stratigraphic features and ecofacts. Stratigraphic features are non-portable remains of human activity that include hearths , roads , deposits, trenches and similar remains. Ecofacts , also referred to as biofacts, are objects of archaeological interest made by other organisms, such as seeds or animal bone . Natural objects that humans have moved but not changed are called manuports . Examples include seashells moved inland or rounded pebbles placed away from

1080-675: The middle of a tunnel approximately 45 metres (148 ft) in length. In 2004, another salt miner found the remains of a second man. During archaeological excavations in 2005, the remains of another two well-preserved men were found. In 2006, the Iranian Cultural Heritage News Agency partnered with the German Mining Museum in Bochum ( Germany ), in 2007 with the University of Oxford and

1120-564: The practice as a means of income, referred to as subsistence looting. However, looting is also endemic in so-called "archaeological countries" like Italy, Greece, Turkey, Cyprus and other areas of the Mediterranean Basin, as well as many areas of Africa, South East Asia and Central and South America, which have a rich heritage of archaeological sites, a large proportion of which are still unknown to formal archaeological science. Many countries have antique looting laws which state that

1160-725: The processes that have acted on them over time. A wide variety of analyses take place to analyze artifacts and provide information on them. However, the process of analyzing artifacts through scientific archaeology can be hindered by the looting and collecting of artifacts, which sparks ethical debate. From the emergence of the Hominids in the Stone Age , humanity has developed a handful of artifacts through time and place. There are archaeological sites and museums that obtain artifacts for physical evidence through past traces of civilizations, as well as norms and rituals, where objects attested

1200-614: The raw materials that were used and how they were utilized in the creation of pottery. Laboratory techniques that allow for this are mainly based around spectroscopy . The different types of spectroscopy used include atomic absorption , electrothermal atomic absorption, inductively coupled plasma-atomic emission and x-ray fluorescence . Ceramic analysis does more than just provide information on raw materials and pottery production; it helps provide insight to past societies in terms of their technology, economy and social structure. Additionally, faunal analysis exists to study artifacts in

1240-522: The remainder to the Achaemenid Dynasty (550–330 BCE). In a 2012 research paper, it was reported that the 2200-year-old mummy of Chehrabad had tapeworm eggs from the genus Taenia in his intestine. This brings new information on ancient diet, indicating the consumption of raw or undercooked meat, and it also constitutes the earliest evidence of ancient intestinal parasites in Iran, adding to

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1280-418: The removal of the cultural object without formal permission is illegal and considered theft. Looting is not only illegal; the practice may also threaten access to cultural heritage . Grave robbery is a type of archaeological looting. Grave robbing is the illegal removal of bodies from grave sites. Often, grave robbing involves stealing artefacts or personal items within ones burial which may later be sold on

1320-542: The site. A study by Lasapornara et al. uses satellite imagery to investigate the extension of the looting. The Elgin Marbles , or Parthenon Marbles are a collection of architecture and sculptures originating from the Parthenon in Athens . Thomas Bruce of Scotland, the 7th Earl of Elgin removed the Marbles and had them shipped to England. Thomas Bruce was the Ottoman Empire's British ambassador. Some say that

1360-426: The sites of Saqqara , Lisht , and el Hibeh . Many sites are often left unguarded and unmonitored due to a lack of funding, but there has been a recent surge in social media activism that seeks to report and document the loss and damage caused by looters, in an attempt to combat further theft and vandalism. Apamea was a Greco-Roman city with a large acropolis in the western region of modern-day Syria , located on

1400-433: The three; some might include all of them while others might only include one or two. Sites can have clear boundaries in the form of walls and moats , but this is not always the case. Sites can be distinguished through categories, such as location and past functions. How artifacts exist at these sites can provide archaeological insight. An example of this would be utilizing the position and depth of buried artifacts to determine

1440-641: The time the Marbles were taken to London, Greece was under the control of the Ottoman Empire . The British Museum wants to keep the marbles in London because they claim they are saving the Marbles from damage despite the Acropolis Museum in Athens having been built specifically with the protection of these artifacts in mind. The Euphronios, or Sarpedon Krater , is an ancient Greek vessel. It

1480-411: The water action that made them. These distinctions are often blurred; a bone removed from an animal carcass is a biofact but a bone carved into a useful implement is an artifact. Similarly there can be debate over early stone objects that could be either crude artifact or naturally occurring and happen to resemble early objects made by early humans or Homo sapiens . It can be difficult to distinguish

1520-438: Was built from stone in 256 CE in an early Roman era town. In 1920, it was discovered by British soldiers while digging trenches during World War I . Multiple figures, shrines, and sculptures of various cultures and religions ( Roman , Sumerian , Palmyrene , Judean , Parthian , and Greek ) were found here. It also contains sacred architecture , wall paintings, and the oldest depiction of Jesus Christ. The site represents

1560-411: Was made around 515 BC in Athens by the artist Euphronios . The vessel was used to mix wine and water. The vessel is said to have been excavated from an Etruscan tomb. The painting on it is an image of Sarpedon , the son of Zeus , dying with Hermes , Hypnos , and Thanatos surrounding Sarapedon. The vessel also includes a painting of 3 children of Athens preparing for a battle. One popular story for

1600-413: Was the only form of dating for prehistoric periods of time. Typology is the process that groups together artifacts that are similar in material and shape. This strategy is based around the ideas that styles of objects match certain time periods and that these styles change slowly over time. Artifact collecting and looting has sparked heavy debate in the archaeological realm. Looting in archaeological terms

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