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84-534: The Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan oil pipeline , the South Caucasus natural gas pipeline , and the Kars–Tbilisi–Baku railway pass through the region. The population of the region is made up of Georgians and Armenians , as well as smaller numbers of Russians . Samtskhe–Javakheti borders Adjara and Guria in the northwestern tip, Imereti in the north, Shida Kartli in the northeast and Kvemo Kartli in

168-513: A burial site located in the western industrial zone of Varna , approximately 4 km from the city centre, internationally considered one of the key archaeological sites in world prehistory. The oldest gold treasure in the world, dating from 4,600 BC to 4,200 BC, was discovered at the site. The gold piece dating from 4,500 BC, found in 2019 in Durankulak , near Varna is another important example. Other signs of early metals are found from

252-651: A corridor eight meters wide, and is buried to a depth of at least one meter. The pipeline runs parallel to the South Caucasus Gas Pipeline , which transports natural gas from the Sangachal Terminal to Erzurum in Turkey. The pipeline has a projected lifespan of 40 years, and at normal capacity it transports 1 million barrels per day (160 × 10 ^  m /d). It needs 10 million barrels (1.6 × 10 ^  m ) of oil to fill

336-410: A ductile to brittle transition and lose their toughness, becoming more brittle and prone to cracking. Metals under continual cyclic loading can suffer from metal fatigue . Metals under constant stress at elevated temperatures can creep . Cold-working processes, in which the product's shape is altered by rolling, fabrication or other processes, while the product is cold, can increase the strength of

420-413: A liquid bath. Metallurgists study the microscopic and macroscopic structure of metals using metallography , a technique invented by Henry Clifton Sorby . In metallography, an alloy of interest is ground flat and polished to a mirror finish. The sample can then be etched to reveal the microstructure and macrostructure of the metal. The sample is then examined in an optical or electron microscope , and

504-401: A major concern. Cast irons, including ductile iron , are also part of the iron-carbon system. Iron-Manganese-Chromium alloys (Hadfield-type steels) are also used in non-magnetic applications such as directional drilling. Other engineering metals include aluminium , chromium , copper , magnesium , nickel , titanium , zinc , and silicon . These metals are most often used as alloys with

588-743: A pipeline from Azerbaijan would run through Georgia or Armenia , but the route through Armenia was politically impossible due to the unresolved war between Armenia and Azerbaijan over the status of Nagorno-Karabakh . This left the circuitous Azerbaijan-Georgia-Turkey route, longer and more expensive to build than the other option. The project gained momentum following the Ankara Declaration, adopted on 29 October 1998 by President of Azerbaijan Heydar Aliyev , President of Georgia Eduard Shevardnadze , President of Kazakhstan Nursultan Nazarbayev , President of Turkey Süleyman Demirel , and President of Uzbekistan Islam Karimov . The declaration

672-535: A population of: In 1926, the Akhalkalaki Uyezd (corresponding to Javakheti ) had a population of: In 2002, Samtskhe–Javakheti province ethnic makeup of 207,598 total population: In 2014, Samtskhe–Javakheti province of Georgia had the following ethnic makeup of 160,504 total population: The current division of Georgia into "regions" ( Mkhare ) was introduced by the Shevardnadze government in

756-639: A result of the struggles of the Russian Empire with the Ottomans, Russian authorities settled Christian Armenians and Caucasus Greeks in the area after 1828. Armenian refugees from the Armenian genocide in the Ottoman Empire came in the early 20th century. Also a large number of Russian Doukhobor sect members settled the region. Georgia came fully under Soviet control in 1921, after

840-627: A smelted copper axe dating from 5,500 BC, belonging to the Vinča culture . The Balkans and adjacent Carpathian region were the location of major Chalcolithic cultures including Vinča , Varna , Karanovo , Gumelnița and Hamangia , which are often grouped together under the name of ' Old Europe '. With the Carpatho-Balkan region described as the 'earliest metallurgical province in Eurasia', its scale and technical quality of metal production in

924-504: A special purpose battalion that would guard the pipeline while the US watched over the area with Unmanned Arial Vehicles (UAVs). On 5 August 2008, a major explosion and fire in Refahiye (eastern Turkey Erzincan Province ) closed the pipeline. The Kurdistan Workers Party (PKK) claimed responsibility. The pipeline was restarted on 25 August 2008. There is circumstantial evidence that it

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1008-650: A state oil fund (SOFAZ), mandated with using revenue from natural resources to benefit future generations, bolster support from key international lenders, and improve transparency and accountability. Azerbaijan became the first oil-producing country to join EITI, the British-led Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative . Concerns have been addressed about the security of the pipeline. It bypasses Armenia , which has an unresolved conflict with Azerbaijan over

1092-579: A superior metal could be made, an alloy called bronze . This represented a major technological shift known as the Bronze Age . The extraction of iron from its ore into a workable metal is much more difficult than for copper or tin. The process appears to have been invented by the Hittites in about 1200 BC, beginning the Iron Age . The secret of extracting and working iron was a key factor in

1176-546: A tanker named British Hawthorn . The tanker sailed on 4 June 2006 with about 600,000 barrels (95,000 m ) of crude oil. The 1,768 kilometres (1,099 mi) long pipeline starts at the Sangachal Terminal near Baku in Azerbaijan, crosses Georgia and terminates at the Ceyhan Marine Terminal (Haydar Aliyev Terminal) on the south-eastern Mediterranean coast of Turkey. 443 kilometres (275 mi) of

1260-590: A total of 271 populated settlements: According to data from the National Statistical Bureau of Georgia, Samtskhe–Javakheti had 151,110 inhabitants as of January 1, 2021, a decrease of 6% compared to the 2014 census. Of these, 35.9% live in urban areas and 64.1% in rural villages. Akhaltsikhe and Akhalkalaki are the most densely populated municipalities. In 1926, the Akhaltsikhe Uyezd (corresponding to Meskheti or Samtskhe) had

1344-681: Is a 1,768 kilometres (1,099 mi) long crude oil pipeline from the Azeri–Chirag–Gunashli oil field in the Caspian Sea to the Mediterranean Sea . It connects Baku , the capital of Azerbaijan and Ceyhan , a port on the south-eastern Mediterranean coast of Turkey , via Tbilisi , the capital of Georgia . It is the second-longest oil pipeline in the former Soviet Union, after the Druzhba pipeline . The first oil that

1428-401: Is a chemical surface-treatment technique. It involves bonding a thin layer of another metal such as gold , silver , chromium or zinc to the surface of the product. This is done by selecting the coating material electrolyte solution, which is the material that is going to coat the workpiece (gold, silver, zinc). There needs to be two electrodes of different materials: one the same material as

1512-648: Is a thinly disguised version of the BTC. ‘ The Encyclopaedia of the successful land acquisition processes of the Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan and South Caucasus Pipelines projects in Azerbaijan’. Metallurgy Metallurgy is a domain of materials science and engineering that studies the physical and chemical behavior of metallic elements , their inter-metallic compounds , and their mixtures, which are known as alloys . Metallurgy encompasses both

1596-443: Is an industrial coating process that consists of a heat source (flame or other) and a coating material that can be in a powder or wire form, which is melted then sprayed on the surface of the material being treated at a high velocity. The spray treating process is known by many different names such as HVOF (High Velocity Oxygen Fuel), plasma spray, flame spray, arc spray and metalizing. Electroless deposition (ED) or electroless plating

1680-708: Is collected and processed to extract valuable metals. Ore bodies often contain more than one valuable metal. Tailings of a previous process may be used as a feed in another process to extract a secondary product from the original ore. Additionally, a concentrate may contain more than one valuable metal. That concentrate would then be processed to separate the valuable metals into individual constituents. Much effort has been placed on understanding iron –carbon alloy system, which includes steels and cast irons . Plain carbon steels (those that contain essentially only carbon as an alloying element) are used in low-cost, high-strength applications, where neither weight nor corrosion are

1764-455: Is defined as the autocatalytic process through which metals and metal alloys are deposited onto nonconductive surfaces. These nonconductive surfaces include plastics, ceramics, and glass etc., which can then become decorative, anti-corrosive, and conductive depending on their final functions. Electroless deposition is a chemical processes that create metal coatings on various materials by autocatalytic chemical reduction of metal cations in

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1848-654: Is found in the Balkans and Carpathian Mountains , as evidenced by findings of objects made by metal casting and smelting dated to around 6000-5000 BC. Certain metals, such as tin, lead, and copper can be recovered from their ores by simply heating the rocks in a fire or blast furnace in a process known as smelting. The first evidence of copper smelting, dating from the 6th millennium BC, has been found at archaeological sites in Majdanpek , Jarmovac and Pločnik , in present-day Serbia . The site of Pločnik has produced

1932-504: Is known as a metallurgist. The science of metallurgy is further subdivided into two broad categories: chemical metallurgy and physical metallurgy . Chemical metallurgy is chiefly concerned with the reduction and oxidation of metals, and the chemical performance of metals. Subjects of study in chemical metallurgy include mineral processing , the extraction of metals , thermodynamics , electrochemistry , and chemical degradation ( corrosion ). In contrast, physical metallurgy focuses on

2016-463: Is now a region of great strategic significance. The U.S. and other Western nations have become much more involved in the affairs of the three nations through which oil will flow. The countries have been trying to use the involvement as a counterbalance to Russian and Iranian economic and military dominance in the region. Russian specialists claim that the pipeline will weaken the Russian influence in

2100-545: Is the more common one in the United Kingdom . The / ˈ m ɛ t əl ɜːr dʒ i / pronunciation is the more common one in the United States US and is the first-listed variant in various American dictionaries, including Merriam-Webster Collegiate and American Heritage . The earliest metal employed by humans appears to be gold , which can be found " native ". Small amounts of natural gold, dating to

2184-545: The Caspian Sea via the Sangachal Terminal . This pipeline may also transport oil from Kazakhstan's Kashagan oil field and other oil fields in Central Asia . The government of Kazakhstan announced that it would build a trans-Caspian oil pipeline from the Kazakhstani port of Aktau to Baku, but because of the opposition from both Russia and Iran it started to transport oil to the BTC pipeline by tankers across

2268-595: The Erusheti Highlands , a mountain range along the border with Turkey. In this gorge the large historic cave monastery Vardzia is situated, an important tourist attraction. The river flows initially in a northwesterly direction through the gorge to Akhaltsikhe via Khertvisi Fortress where the Paravani River joins the Mtkvari. The river gorge has a depth of approximately 500 meters. At Akhaltsikhe

2352-672: The Kouropalatate of Iberia . rulers of Tao-Klarjeti fought the Arabs from there, gradually incorporating the surrounding lands of Samtskhe and Javakheti, along with a few other lesser lands, from the Arab dominance. For a long time the region became a cultural safe-house and one of the most important religious centers of Georgia. In the mid-10th century, Javakheti was incorporated into Kingdom of Abkhazia . In 964 Leon III of Abkhazia extended his influence to Javakheti, during his reign

2436-585: The Red Army invasion of Georgia . The remaining Muslim minority in Meskheti, also known as " Meskhetian Turks ", were deported in cattle-trucks to Central Asia by order of Stalin and settled within an area that overlaps the boundaries of the modern nations of Kazakhstan , Kyrgyzstan , and Uzbekistan . Today, many are still dispersed across those countries. Of the 100,000 forcibly deported, as many as 30,000-50,000 perished. The major tourist attractions are

2520-548: The Trans-Israel pipeline owned by the Eilat Ashkelon Pipeline Company (EAPC). The pipeline is owned and operated by BTC Co, a consortium of 11 energy companies. The consortium is managed by BP . Shareholders are: Azerbaijani, Georgian, Turkish, British, and American archaeologists began archaeological surveys 2000, sponsored by BP. Several cultural artifacts were uncovered during

2604-403: The science and the technology of metals, including the production of metals and the engineering of metal components used in products for both consumers and manufacturers. Metallurgy is distinct from the craft of metalworking . Metalworking relies on metallurgy in a similar manner to how medicine relies on medical science for technical advancement. A specialist practitioner of metallurgy

Samtskhe–Javakheti - Misplaced Pages Continue

2688-471: The 12th century, the domain was ruled by representatives of the feudal family of Toreli . In the 15th century, Javakheti was incorporated to principality of Samtskhe-Saatabago . In the 16th century, the region, as well as the adjacent territories of western Georgia, was occupied by the Ottoman Empire . The Georgian population of Javakheti was displaced to inner regions of Georgia such as Imereti and Kartli . Those who remained gradually became Muslim . As

2772-612: The 2nd millennium to the 4th century BC, Meskheti was believed to be part of the Kingdom of Diauehi , in the 4th century BC to the 6th century AD part of the Kingdom of Iberia . From the 10th to the 15th century it was part of the united Georgian Kingdom . In the 16th century Meskheti was integrated into the Safavid Empire , followed by the Ottoman Empire . After the conclusion of the Russo-Persian War of 1826-28 , it

2856-527: The 6th–5th millennia BC totally overshadowed that of any other contemporary production centre. The earliest documented use of lead (possibly native or smelted) in the Near East dates from the 6th millennium BC, is from the late Neolithic settlements of Yarim Tepe and Arpachiyah in Iraq . The artifacts suggest that lead smelting may have predated copper smelting. Metallurgy of lead has also been found in

2940-664: The Balkans during the same period. Copper smelting is documented at sites in Anatolia and at the site of Tal-i Iblis in southeastern Iran from c. 5000 BC. Copper smelting is first documented in the Delta region of northern Egypt in c. 4000 BC, associated with the Maadi culture . This represents the earliest evidence for smelting in Africa. The Varna Necropolis , Bulgaria , is

3024-519: The Caspian Sea. Not only Kazakh, but also Turkmen oil have transported via Baku–Tbilisi–Ceyhan pipeline. Thus, in 2015, 5,2 million Kazakh and Turkmen oil were transported via this pipeline to the world markets. It has been proposed that oil from the pipeline be transported to eastern Asia via the Israeli oil terminals at Ashkelon and Eilat , the overland trans-Israel sector being bridged by

3108-631: The Caucasus. The Russian Parliament Foreign Affairs Committee chairman Konstantin Kosachev  [ ru ] stated that the United States and other Western countries are planning to station soldiers in the Caucasus on the pretext of instability in regions through which the pipeline passes. The project has been criticised due to bypassing and regional isolation of Armenia , as well as for human rights and safety concerns. Ilham Aliev ,

3192-467: The Georgian section was hosted by President Mikheil Saakashvili at the pumping station near Gardabani on 12 October 2005. The inauguration ceremony at Ceyhan terminal was held on 13 July 2006. The pipeline was gradually filled with 10 million barrels of oil flowing from Baku and reaching Ceyhan on 28 May 2006. The first oil was loaded at the Ceyhan Marine Terminal (Haydar Aliyev Terminal) onto

3276-527: The architects and initiators of the project, saw construction through Georgia as a guarantee for the country's future economic and political security and stability. President Mikhail Saakashvili shares this view. "All strategic contracts in Georgia, especially the contract for the Caspian pipeline are a matter of survival for the Georgian state," he told reporters on 26 November 2003. Although some have touted

3360-503: The cave monasteries of Vardzia (which was founded by Queen Tamar in 1185), Vanis Kvabebi (which dates from the 8th century), Rabati Castle and Khertvisi Fortress . Also, among national visitors is very popular 10th century Sapara Monastery , Tmogvi fortress, and 8th century Zarzma monastery . 41°35′N 43°16′E  /  41.583°N 43.267°E  / 41.583; 43.267 Baku%E2%80%93Tbilisi%E2%80%93Ceyhan pipeline The Baku–Tbilisi–Ceyhan (BTC) pipeline

3444-416: The coating material and one that is receiving the coating material. Two electrodes are electrically charged and the coating material is stuck to the work piece. It is used to reduce corrosion as well as to improve the product's aesthetic appearance. It is also used to make inexpensive metals look like the more expensive ones (gold, silver). Shot peening is a cold working process used to finish metal parts. In

Samtskhe–Javakheti - Misplaced Pages Continue

3528-413: The construction, resulting in a coordinated research of the archaeological sites such as Dashbulaq, Hasansu, Zayamchai, and Tovuzchai in Azerbaijan; Klde , Orchosani, and Saphar-Kharaba in Georgia; and Güllüdere, Yüceören, and Ziyaretsuyu in Turkey. Even before its completion, the pipeline was having an effect on the world's petroleum politics . The South Caucasus , previously seen as Russia's backyard,

3612-514: The crossing of the watershed of the Borjomi-Kharagauli National Park in Georgia, an area known for mineral water springs and natural beauty, although the pipeline itself does not enter the park. The construction of the pipeline left a highly visible scar across the landscape. The Oxford-based "Baku Ceyhan Campaign" stated that "public money should not be used to subsidize social and environmental problems, purely in

3696-543: The east. The southern border is formed by Armenia , the southwestern flank borders Turkey . The region covers the Javakheti Plateau , a highland of volcanic origin and the northern extension of the Armenian highlands . The plains are between 1500 and 2000 meters above sea level. Samtskhe–Javakheti is bordered by several mountain ranges, the most important being the Meskheti Range and Trialeti Range in

3780-619: The highly developed and complex processes of mining metal ores, metal extraction, and metallurgy of the time. Agricola has been described as the "father of metallurgy". Extractive metallurgy is the practice of removing valuable metals from an ore and refining the extracted raw metals into a purer form. In order to convert a metal oxide or sulphide to a purer metal, the ore must be reduced physically, chemically , or electrolytically . Extractive metallurgists are interested in three primary streams: feed, concentrate (metal oxide/sulphide) and tailings (waste). After mining, large pieces of

3864-402: The image contrast provides details on the composition, mechanical properties, and processing history. Crystallography , often using diffraction of x-rays or electrons , is another valuable tool available to the modern metallurgist. Crystallography allows identification of unknown materials and reveals the crystal structure of the sample. Quantitative crystallography can be used to calculate

3948-661: The initial years of operation, with the possibility that the fees increase to US$ 290 million per year from year 17 to year 40. Turkey also benefits from an increase of commerce in the port of Ceyhan and other parts of eastern Anatolia, the region which had experienced significant decrease in economic activities since the Gulf War in 1991. The reduction of oil tanker traffic on the Bosphorus will contribute to greater security for Istanbul. To counter concerns that oil money would be siphoned off by corrupt officials, Azerbaijan set up

4032-406: The interests of the private sector, but must be conditional on a positive contribution to the economic and social development of people in the region." As Borjomi mineral water is a major export commodity of Georgia, any oil spills there would have a catastrophic effect on the economy. The field joint coating of the pipeline has been controversial over the claim that SPC 2888, the sealant used,

4116-508: The joining of metals (including welding , brazing , and soldering ). Emerging areas for metallurgists include nanotechnology , superconductors , composites , biomedical materials , electronic materials (semiconductors) and surface engineering . Metallurgy derives from the Ancient Greek μεταλλουργός , metallourgós , "worker in metal", from μέταλλον , métallon , "mine, metal" + ἔργον , érgon , "work" The word

4200-560: The late Paleolithic period, 40,000 BC, have been found in Spanish caves. Silver , copper , tin and meteoric iron can also be found in native form, allowing a limited amount of metalworking in early cultures. Early cold metallurgy, using native copper not melted from mineral has been documented at sites in Anatolia and at the site of Tell Maghzaliyah in Iraq , dating from the 7th/6th millennia BC. The earliest archaeological support of smelting (hot metallurgy) in Eurasia

4284-427: The mechanical properties of metals, the physical properties of metals, and the physical performance of metals. Topics studied in physical metallurgy include crystallography , material characterization , mechanical metallurgy, phase transformations , and failure mechanisms . Historically, metallurgy has predominately focused on the production of metals. Metal production begins with the processing of ores to extract

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4368-917: The metal, and includes the mixture of metals to make alloys . Metal alloys are often a blend of at least two different metallic elements. However, non-metallic elements are often added to alloys in order to achieve properties suitable for an application. The study of metal production is subdivided into ferrous metallurgy (also known as black metallurgy ) and non-ferrous metallurgy , also known as colored metallurgy. Ferrous metallurgy involves processes and alloys based on iron , while non-ferrous metallurgy involves processes and alloys based on other metals. The production of ferrous metals accounts for 95% of world metal production. Modern metallurgists work in both emerging and traditional areas as part of an interdisciplinary team alongside material scientists and other engineers. Some traditional areas include mineral processing, metal production, heat treatment, failure analysis , and

4452-550: The mid-1990s, partly as a response to the secession of Abkhazia and the South Ossetia conflict. Samtskhe–Javakheti was basically formed by combining the two traditional provinces of Meskheti (Samtskhe) and Javakheti . The ancient tribes of Meskhi (or Moschi ) and Mosiniks are the first known inhabitants of the area. Some scholars credit the Mosiniks (or Mossynoeci ) with the invention of iron metallurgy . From

4536-631: The new pipeline should pass through its territory, then declined to participate. In the spring of 1992, the Turkish Prime Minister Süleyman Demirel proposed to Central Asian countries including Azerbaijan that the pipeline run through Turkey. The first document on the construction of the Baku–Tbilisi–Ceyhan pipeline was signed between Azerbaijan and Turkey on 9 March 1993 in Ankara . The Turkish route meant

4620-532: The north and the Samsari Range and Javakheti Range in the east. The highlands are home to some of Georgia's largest lakes, such as Paravani Lake , Tabatskuri Lake , Khanchali Lake and Kartsakhi Lake . Georgia's largest river, the Mtkvari , flows through the region from Turkey, a few miles north of Kartsakhi Lake. The river has carved a canyon through in the highlands and forms the eastern boundary of

4704-553: The noted exception of silicon, which is not a metal. Other forms include: In production engineering , metallurgy is concerned with the production of metallic components for use in consumer or engineering products. This involves production of alloys, shaping, heat treatment and surface treatment of product. The task of the metallurgist is to achieve balance between material properties, such as cost, weight , strength , toughness , hardness , corrosion , fatigue resistance and performance in temperature extremes. To achieve this goal,

4788-512: The operating environment must be carefully considered. Determining the hardness of the metal using the Rockwell, Vickers, and Brinell hardness scales is a commonly used practice that helps better understand the metal's elasticity and plasticity for different applications and production processes. In a saltwater environment, most ferrous metals and some non-ferrous alloys corrode quickly. Metals exposed to cold or cryogenic conditions may undergo

4872-563: The operation of the pipeline requires 1,000 long-term employees across a 40-year period. 70% of the costs are funded by third parties, including the World Bank 's International Finance Corporation , the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development , export credit agencies of seven countries and a syndicate of 15 commercial banks. The pipeline is supplied by oil from Azerbaijan's Azeri-Chirag-Guneshli oil field in

4956-482: The ore feed are broken through crushing or grinding in order to obtain particles small enough, where each particle is either mostly valuable or mostly waste. Concentrating the particles of value in a form supporting separation enables the desired metal to be removed from waste products. Mining may not be necessary, if the ore body and physical environment are conducive to leaching . Leaching dissolves minerals in an ore body and results in an enriched solution. The solution

5040-402: The piece being treated. The compression stress in the surface of the material strengthens the part and makes it more resistant to fatigue failure, stress failures, corrosion failure, and cracking. Thermal spraying techniques are another popular finishing option, and often have better high temperature properties than electroplated coatings. Thermal spraying, also known as a spray welding process,

5124-462: The pipeline as easing the dependence of the United States and other Western nations on oil from the Middle East , it supplies only 1% of global demand during its first stage. The pipeline diversifies the global oil supply and so insures, to an extent, against a failure in supply elsewhere. Critics of the pipeline—particularly Russia—are skeptical about its economic prospects. Construction of

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5208-476: The pipeline has contributed to the economies of the host countries. In the first half of 2007, a year after the launch of the pipeline as the main export route for Azerbaijani oil, the real GDP growth of Azerbaijan hit a record of 35%. Substantial transit fees accrue to Georgia and Turkey. For Georgia, the transit fees are expected to produce an average of US$ 62.5 million per year. Turkey is expected to receive approximately US$ 200 million in transit fees per year in

5292-546: The pipeline lie in Azerbaijan, 249 kilometres (155 mi) in Georgia and 1,076 kilometres (669 mi) in Turkey. It crosses several mountain ranges at altitudes to 2,830 metres (9,300 ft). It also traverses 3,000 roads, railways, and utility lines—both overground and underground—and 1,500 watercourses up to 500 metres (1,600 ft) wide (in the case of the Ceyhan River in Turkey). The pipeline occupies

5376-520: The pipeline's route, and criticism of the government leading to arrest. The pipeline was a central plot point in the James Bond film The World Is Not Enough (1999). One of the central characters, Elektra King , is responsible for the construction of an oil pipeline through the Caucasus, from the Caspian Sea to the Mediterranean coast of Turkey. Named the "King pipeline" in the film, it

5460-544: The pipeline. Oil flows at 2 metres (6.6 ft) per second. There are eight pump stations, two in Azerbaijan, two in Georgia, four in Turkey. The project includes also the Ceyhan Marine Terminal (officially the Haydar Aliyev Terminal, named after the Azerbaijani late president Heydar Aliyev ), three intermediate pigging stations, one pressure reduction station, and 101 small block valves. It

5544-609: The president of Azerbaijan , which is in conflict with Armenia, was cited as saying, "If we succeed with this project, the Armenians will end in complete isolation, which would create an additional problem for their future, their already bleak future". The project also constitutes an important leg of the East–West energy corridor, gaining Turkey greater geopolitical importance. The pipeline supports Georgia's independence from Russian influence. Former President Eduard Shevardnadze, one of

5628-445: The process of shot peening, small round shot is blasted against the surface of the part to be finished. This process is used to prolong the product life of the part, prevent stress corrosion failures, and also prevent fatigue. The shot leaves small dimples on the surface like a peen hammer does, which cause compression stress under the dimple. As the shot media strikes the material over and over, it forms many overlapping dimples throughout

5712-666: The product by a process called work hardening . Work hardening creates microscopic defects in the metal, which resist further changes of shape. Metals can be heat-treated to alter the properties of strength, ductility, toughness, hardness and resistance to corrosion. Common heat treatment processes include annealing, precipitation strengthening , quenching, and tempering: Often, mechanical and thermal treatments are combined in what are known as thermo-mechanical treatments for better properties and more efficient processing of materials. These processes are common to high-alloy special steels, superalloys and titanium alloys. Electroplating

5796-524: The river turns to the northeast and streams to Borjomi between the Meskheti Range (left bank) and Trialeti Range (right bank), after which the river leaves the region through the Shida Kartli plain. Due to its high location, the region has cold and snowy winters. In the northern situated Bakuriani , not far from the tourist attraction Borjomi, there is a ski resort. The region has six municipalities with 82 administrative communities ( temi ) and

5880-455: The status of Nagorno-Karabakh , crosses through Georgia, which has two unresolved separatist conflicts, and goes through the edges of the Kurdish region of Turkey, which has seen a prolonged and bitter conflict with Kurdish separatists. It will require constant guarding to prevent sabotage, though the fact that almost all of the pipeline is buried will make it harder to attack. Georgia formed

5964-728: The success of the Philistines . Historical developments in ferrous metallurgy can be found in a wide variety of past cultures and civilizations. This includes the ancient and medieval kingdoms and empires of the Middle East and Near East , ancient Iran , ancient Egypt , ancient Nubia , and Anatolia in present-day Turkey , Ancient Nok , Carthage , the Celts , Greeks and Romans of ancient Europe , medieval Europe, ancient and medieval China , ancient and medieval India , ancient and medieval Japan , amongst others. A 16th century book by Georg Agricola , De re metallica , describes

6048-568: The third millennium BC in Palmela , Portugal, Los Millares , Spain, and Stonehenge , United Kingdom. The precise beginnings, however, have not be clearly ascertained and new discoveries are both continuous and ongoing. In approximately 1900 BC, ancient iron smelting sites existed in Tamil Nadu . In the Near East , about 3,500 BC, it was discovered that by combining copper and tin,

6132-657: Was a part of Russian Tiflis Governorate from 1817 till 1829, from 1918 to 1921 part of the Democratic Republic of Georgia , and from 1921 to 1990 part of the Georgian SSR . After independence from the USSR Meskheti was reinstalled as a province of Georgia, and later cast into the new Samtskhe–Javakheti region. In ancient sources, the region was recorded as Zabakha in 785 BC, by the king Argishti I of Urartu . According to Cyril Toumanoff , Javakheti

6216-417: Was built Kumurdo Cathedral . In subsequent centuries, Javakheti was integral part of unified Georgian monarchy and had a period of significant development: lot of bridges, churches, monasteries, and royal residences (Lgivi, Ghrtila, Bozhano, Vardzia ) were built. From the 11th century, the center of upper Javakheti became Akhalkalaki . From the 10th century, the center of lowland Javakheti was Tmogvi . From

6300-577: Was cited as saying: "This is a very serious financial resource for Azerbaijan and we need to deprive them of these means". In October 2020, Azerbaijan claimed that pipeline was targeted during the Second Nagorno-Karabakh War . Armenia rejected the accusations. Critics of the pipeline have pointed out it should be properly earthquake engineered because it travels through three active faults in Azerbaijan, four in Georgia and seven in Turkey. Environmental activists fiercely opposed

6384-762: Was constructed by BOTAŞ Petroleum Pipeline Corporation. Bechtel was the main contractor for engineering, procurement and construction. Detailed design and engineering contractor was ILF Consulting Engineers for the Turkish section of pipeline, which is approximately over 1000km. On 25 May 2005, the pipeline was inaugurated at the Sangachal Terminal by President Ilham Aliyev of the Azerbaijan Republic, President Mikhail Saakashvili of Georgia and President Ahmet Sezer of Turkey, joined by President Nursultan Nazarbayev of Kazakhstan and United States Secretary of Energy Samuel Bodman . The inauguration of

6468-441: Was constructed from 150,000 individual joints of line pipe, each measuring 12 metres (39 ft) in length. This corresponds to a total weight of 655,000 short tons (594,000 t). The pipeline is 1,070 millimetres (42 in) diameter for most of its length, narrowing to 865 millimetres (34.1 in) diameter as it nears Ceyhan. The pipeline cost US$ 3.9 billion. The construction created 10,000 short-term jobs and

6552-521: Was established in London on 1 August 2002. The ceremony launching construction of the pipeline was held on 18 September 2002. Construction began in April 2003 and was completed in 2005. The Azerbaijan section was constructed by Consolidated Contractors International of Greece, and Georgia's section was constructed by a joint venture of France's Spie Capag and UK Petrofac International. The Turkish section

6636-545: Was instead a sophisticated cyber attack on the line's control and safety systems that led to increased pressure and an explosion. The attack might have been related to the Russo-Georgian War , which started two days later. However, the cyber attack theory has been largely criticized due to a lack of evidence, and was publicly debunked by ICS cyber security expert Robert M. Lee. In September 2015, unrecognized Nagorno-Karabakh's defense minister, Levon Mnatsakanyan,

6720-591: Was not properly tested. BP and its contractors interrupted work until the problem was eliminated. The pipeline eliminates 350 tanker cargoes per year through the sensitive congested Bosphorus and Dardanelles . Human rights activists criticized Western governments for the pipeline, due to reported human and civil rights abuses by the Aliyev regime in Azerbaijan. A Czech documentary film Zdroj ( Source ) underscores these human rights abuses, such as eminent domain violations in appropriating land for

6804-434: Was originally an alchemist 's term for the extraction of metals from minerals, the ending -urgy signifying a process, especially manufacturing: it was discussed in this sense in the 1797 Encyclopædia Britannica . In the late 19th century, metallurgy's definition was extended to the more general scientific study of metals, alloys, and related processes. In English , the / m ɛ ˈ t æ l ər dʒ i / pronunciation

6888-660: Was part of the Iberian duchy of Tsunda from the 4th or 3rd century BC. Saint Nino entered Iberia from Javakheti, and, following the course of the River Kura , she arrived in Mtskheta , the capital of the kingdom, once there, she eventually began to preach Christianity, which culminated by Christianization of Iberia . In struggle against the Arab occupation , Bagrationi dynasty came to rule over Tao-Klarjeti and established

6972-545: Was pumped from the Baku end of the pipeline reached Ceyhan on 28 May 2006. The Caspian Sea lies above one of the world's largest collections of oil and gas fields. As the sea is landlocked, transporting oil to Western markets is complicated. During Soviet times, all transportation routes from the Caspian region were through Russia. The collapse of the Soviet Union inspired a search for new routes. Russia first insisted that

7056-654: Was witnessed by the United States Secretary of Energy Bill Richardson , who expressed strong support for the pipeline. The intergovernmental agreement in support of the pipeline was signed by Azerbaijan, Georgia, and Turkey on 18 November 1999, during a meeting of the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) in Istanbul , Turkey. The Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan Pipeline Company (BTC Co.)

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