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73-581: San Fele ( Neapolitan : Sandə Fèlə ) is a town and comune in the province of Potenza in the Basilicata region of southern Italy . San Fele is a picturesque stone village located at the saddle between two mountain peaks, Monte Toretta and Monte Castello, and overlooking the Vitalba Valley. The comune (municipality) of San Fele is part of the Comunità montana del Vulture, which makes it

146-584: A in Napoli Naples ieri. Exonym and endonym An exonym (also known as xenonym ) is an established, non-native name for a group of people, individual person, geographical place, language, or dialect, meaning that it is used primarily outside the particular place inhabited by the group or linguistic community. Exonyms exist not only for historico-geographical reasons but also in consideration of difficulties when pronouncing foreign words, or from non-systematic attempts at transcribing into

219-770: A ; masc. "long", fem. "long"), whereas in Italian it is expressed by a change in the final vowel. These and other morpho-syntactic differences distinguish the Neapolitan language from the Italian language and the Neapolitan accent. Neapolitan has had a significant influence on the intonation of Rioplatense Spanish spoken in Buenos Aires and the surrounding region of Argentina and in the entire country of Uruguay . While there are only five graphic vowels in Neapolitan, phonemically, there are eight. Stressed vowels e and o can be either " closed " or " open " and

292-410: A or an , are presented in the following table: In Neapolitan there are four finite moods: indicative , subjunctive , conditional and imperative , and three non-finite modes: infinitive , gerund and participle . Each mood has an active and a passive form. The only auxiliary verbs used in the active form is (h)avé (Eng. "to have", It. avere ), which contrasts with Italian, in which

365-700: A pejorative way. For example, Romani people often prefer that term to exonyms such as Gypsy (from the name of Egypt ), and the French term bohémien , bohème (from the name of Bohemia ). People may also avoid exonyms for reasons of historical sensitivity, as in the case of German names for Polish and Czech places that, at one time, had been ethnically or politically German (e.g. Danzig/ Gdańsk , Auschwitz/ Oświęcim and Karlsbad/ Karlovy Vary ); and Russian names for non-Russian locations that were subsequently renamed or had their spelling changed (e.g. Kiev/ Kyiv ). In recent years, geographers have sought to reduce

438-558: A devastating earthquake, San Fele was part of the large emigration of the late 19th century (to North and South America ). A large number emigrated to the United States, including New York City, Buffalo, New York and Newark, New Jersey , Canada, Brazil and Argentina. In addition, after the upheaval of World War II , and particularly in the 1950s and '60s, many San Felese emigrated (to Argentina , Australia , Brazil , Germany , Switzerland , and northern Italy ). Currently,

511-677: A different writing system. For instance, Deutschland is the endonym for the country that is also known by the exonyms Germany and Germania in English and Italian , respectively, Alemania and Allemagne in Spanish and French , respectively, Niemcy in Polish , Saksa and Saksamaa in Finnish and Estonian . The terms autonym , endonym , exonym and xenonym are formed by adding specific prefixes to

584-560: A gateway to the Vulture section of the province of Potenza in the state of Basilicata, Italy, which is famous for its excellent and economical aglianico wines. San Fele is also the trailhead for hikes to lovely waterfalls. The municipality of San Fele is adjacent to Atella , Bella , Castelgrande , Filiano , Muro Lucano , Rapone and Ruvo del Monte . San Fele includes the frazioni (hamlets) of Agrifoglio, Armatieri, Cecci, Cerrito, Difesa, Montagna, Pierno, Priore, Masone, Signorella. It

657-458: A major pathway for Crusaders and Pilgrims to the "Holy Land". San Fele was named by the workers who built the fortress, and were from Venosa , an ancient Roman city also in Basilicata. They dedicated the fortress to their protector-saint, Saint Felix (San Felice), which has been shortened to Fele. In the aftermath of the unification of Italy during the 1840s, much of the local population

730-472: A mere difference in Italian pronunciation. Therefore, while pronunciation presents the strongest barrier to comprehension, the grammar of Neapolitan is what sets it apart from Italian. In Neapolitan, for example, the gender and number of a word is expressed by a change in the accented vowel because it no longer distinguishes final unstressed / a / , / e / and / o / (e.g. l uo ngo [ˈlwoŋɡə] , l o nga [ˈloŋɡə] ; Italian lung o , lung

803-559: A neutral name may be preferred so as to not offend anyone. Thus, an exonym such as Brussels in English could be used instead of favoring either one of the local names ( Dutch / Flemish : Brussel ; French : Bruxelles ). Other difficulties with endonyms have to do with pronunciation, spelling, and word category . The endonym may include sounds and spellings that are highly unfamiliar to speakers of other languages, making appropriate usage difficult if not impossible for an outsider. Over

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876-406: A word beginning with a consonant: "C:" = the initial consonant of the following word is geminated if followed by a vowel. These definite articles are always pronounced distinctly. Before a word beginning with a vowel, l’ or ll’ are used for both masculine and feminine, singular and plural. Although both forms can be found, the ll’ form is by far the most common. In Neapolitan,

949-540: A word or between two vowels: e.g. doje (feminine) or duje (masculine), meaning "two", is pronounced, and often spelled, as roje / ruje ; vedé ("to see") as veré , and often spelled so; also cadé / caré ("to fall") and Madonna / Maronna . Another purported Oscan influence is the historical assimilation of the consonant cluster /nd/ as /nn/ , pronounced [nː] (this is generally reflected in spelling more consistently: munno vs Italian mondo "world"; quanno vs Italian quando "when"), along with

1022-472: Is also a short drive from Melfi and Melfi Castle. San Fele is about thirty-five miles east of Salerno , and is about a two hour drive from Naples or four hours from Rome. Inhabited since ancient times by woodsmen and called Lucania by the ancient Greeks and Romans, the actual city of San Fele originated in 969, with the construction of an octagonal fortified castle on what is now called Monte Castello, commissioned by Otto I of Saxony to repel potential attacks by

1095-468: Is most commonly used. The changes to Hanyu Pinyin were not only financially costly but were unpopular with the locals, who opined that the Hanyu Pinyin versions were too difficult for non-Chinese or non-Mandarin speakers to pronounce. The government eventually stopped the changes by the 1990s, which has led to some place names within a locality having differing spellings. For example, Nee Soon Road and

1168-553: Is named after the Kingdom of Naples , which once covered most of the area, and the city of Naples was its capital. On 14 October 2008, a law by the Region of Campania stated that Neapolitan was to be protected. While this article mostly addresses the language group native to much of continental Southern Italy or the former Kingdom of Naples, the terms Neapolitan , napulitano or napoletano may also instead refer more narrowly to

1241-718: Is not its Dutch exonym. Old place names that have become outdated after renaming may afterward still be used as historicisms . For example, even today one would talk about the Siege of Leningrad , not the Siege of St. Petersburg because at that time (1941–1944) the city was called Leningrad. Likewise, one would say that Immanuel Kant was born in Königsberg in 1724, not in Kaliningrad ( Калининград ), as it has been called since 1946. Likewise, Istanbul (Turkish: İstanbul )

1314-800: Is now a destination for pilgrims. Many descendants of San Felese diaspora have created San Fele Societies, including the San Felese Society of New Jersey, the San Fele Association of Western New York, and San Felesi in Australia. Neapolitan language Neapolitan ( autonym : ('o n)napulitano [(o n)napuliˈtɑːnə] ; Italian : napoletano ) is a Romance language of the Italo-Romance group spoken in Naples and most of continental Southern Italy . It

1387-563: Is now spelled Xinyi . However, districts like Tamsui and even Taipei itself are not spelled according to Hanyu Pinyin spelling rules. As a matter of fact, most names of Taiwanese cities are still spelled using Chinese postal romanization , including Taipei , Taichung , Taitung , Keelung , and Kaohsiung . During the 1980s, the Singapore Government encouraged the use of Hanyu Pinyin spelling for place names, especially those with Teochew, Hokkien or Cantonese names, as part of

1460-440: Is only to demonstrate where the stress, or accent, falls in some words. Also, the circumflex is used to mark a long vowel where it would not normally occur (e.g. sî "you are"). The following clusters are always geminated if vowel-following. The Neapolitan classical definite articles (corresponding to the English word "the") are a (feminine singular), o (masculine singular) and i (plural for both). Before

1533-549: Is still called Constantinople ( Κωνσταντινούπολη ) in Greek, although the name was changed in Turkish to dissociate the city from its Greek past between 1923 and 1930 (the name Istanbul itself derives from a Medieval Greek phrase ). Prior to Constantinople , the city was known in Greek as Byzantion ( Greek : Βυζάντιον , Latin : Byzantium ), named after its mythical founder, Byzas . Following independence from

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1606-572: Is the human tendency towards neighbours to "be pejorative rather than complimentary, especially where there is a real or fancied difference in cultural level between the ingroup and the outgroup ." For example, Matisoff notes, Khang "an opprobrious term indicating mixed race or parentage" is the Palaung name for Jingpo people and the Jingpo name for Chin people ; both the Jingpo and Burmese use

1679-656: The Beijing dialect , became the official romanization method for Mandarin in the 1970s. As the Mandarin pronunciation does not perfectly map to an English phoneme , English speakers using either romanization will not pronounce the names correctly if standard English pronunciation is used. Nonetheless, many older English speakers still refer to the cities by their older English names, and even today they are often used in their traditional associations, such as Peking duck , Peking opera , and Peking University . As for Nanjing,

1752-606: The Greek root word ónoma ( ὄνομα , 'name'), from Proto-Indo-European *h₃nómn̥ . The prefixes added to these terms are also derived from Greek: The terms autonym and xenonym also have different applications, thus leaving endonym and exonym as the preferred forms. Marcel Aurousseau , an Australian geographer , first used the term exonym in his work The Rendering of Geographical Names (1957). Endonyms and exonyms can be divided in three main categories: As it pertains to geographical features ,

1825-526: The Roman Empire applied the word " Walha " to foreigners they encountered and this evolved in West Germanic languages as a generic name for speakers of Celtic and later (as Celts became increasingly romanised) Romance languages; thence: During the late 20th century, the use of exonyms often became controversial. Groups often prefer that outsiders avoid exonyms where they have come to be used in

1898-557: The Singapore Armed Forces base Nee Soon Camp are both located in Yishun but retained the old spelling. Matisoff wrote, "A group's autonym is often egocentric, equating the name of the people with 'mankind in general,' or the name of the language with 'human speech'." In Basque , the term erdara/erdera is used for speakers of any language other than Basque (usually Spanish or French). Many millennia earlier,

1971-514: The Slavs are describing Germanic people as "mutes"—in contrast to themselves, "the speaking ones". The most common names of several Indigenous American tribes derive from pejorative exonyms. The name " Apache " most likely derives from a Zuni word meaning "enemy". The name " Sioux ", an abbreviated form of Nadouessioux , most likely derived from a Proto-Algonquian term, * -a·towe· ('foreign-speaking). The name " Comanche " comes from

2044-547: The Speak Mandarin Campaign to promote Mandarin and discourage the use of dialects. For example, the area of Nee Soon, named after Teochew -Peranakan businessman Lim Nee Soon (Hanyu Pinyin: Lín Yìshùn) became Yishun and the neighbourhood schools and places established following the change used the Hanyu Pinyin spelling. In contrast, Hougang is the Hanyu Pinyin spelling but the Hokkien pronunciation au-kang

2117-541: The United Nations Group of Experts on Geographical Names defines: For example, India , China , Egypt , and Germany are the English-language exonyms corresponding to the endonyms Bhārat ( भारत ), Zhōngguó ( 中国 ), Masr ( مَصر ), and Deutschland , respectively. There are also typonyms of specific features, for example hydronyms for bodies of water. In

2190-511: The Ute word kɨmantsi meaning "enemy, stranger". The Ancestral Puebloans are also known as the "Anasazi", a Navajo word meaning "ancient enemies", and contemporary Puebloans discourage the use of the exonym. Various Native-American autonyms are sometimes explained to English readers as having literal translations of "original people" or "normal people", with implicit contrast to other first nations as not original or not normal. Although

2263-464: The gender of a noun is not easily determined by the article, so other means must be used. In the case of ’o , which can be either masculine singular or neuter singular (there is no neuter plural in Neapolitan), the initial consonant of the noun is doubled when it is neuter. For example, the name of a language in Neapolitan is always neuter, so if we see ’o nnapulitano we know it refers to

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2336-561: The "language". The term survives to this day in the Slavic languages (e.g. Ukrainian німці (nimtsi); Russian немцы (nemtsy), Slovene Nemčija), and was borrowed into Hungarian , Romanian , and Ottoman Turkish (in which case it referred specifically to Austria ). One of the more prominent theories regarding the origin of the term " Slav " suggests that it comes from the Slavic root slovo (hence " Slovakia " and " Slovenia " for example), meaning 'word' or 'speech'. In this context,

2409-753: The Byzantines who ruled Southern Italy at the time. The area was seen as strategically important because the Crocelle Pass, the southern passage through the Apennine Mountains lies in the northeast corner of the Comune (municipality) of San Fele. From ancient times this Pass functioned as a major trade route between Salerno in the West and Bari in the East, both major trading ports. The route was also

2482-817: The Chinese word yeren ( 野人 ; 'wild men', 'savage', 'rustic people' ) as the name for Lisu people . As exonyms develop for places of significance for speakers of the language of the exonym, consequently, many European capitals have English exonyms, for example: In contrast, historically less-prominent capitals such as Ljubljana and Zagreb do not have English exonyms, but do have exonyms in languages spoken nearby, e.g. German : Laibach and Agram (the latter being obsolete); Italian : Lubiana and Zagabria . Madrid , Berlin , Oslo , and Amsterdam , with identical names in most major European languages , are exceptions. Some European cities might be considered partial exceptions, in that whilst

2555-651: The Greeks thought that all non-Greeks were uncultured and so called them " barbarians ", which eventually gave rise to the exonym " Berber ". Exonyms often describe others as "foreign-speaking", "non-speaking", or "nonsense-speaking". One example is the Slavic term for the Germans, nemtsi , possibly deriving from plural of nemy ("mute"); standard etymology has it that the Slavic peoples referred to their Germanic neighbors as "mutes" because they could not speak

2628-520: The Neapolitan language, whereas ’o napulitano would refer to a Neapolitan man. Likewise, since ’e can be either masculine or feminine plural, when it is feminine plural, the initial consonant of the noun is doubled. For example, consider ’a lista , which in Neapolitan is feminine singular, meaning "the list". In the plural, it becomes ’e lliste . There can also be problems with nouns whose singular form ends in e . Since plural nouns usually end in e whether masculine or feminine,

2701-821: The Patron Saint Sebastian 1st Sunday of May: Feast of the Madonna di Pierno 30 July: Feast of San Giustino de Jacobis 15 August: Feast of the Madonna of Pierno 8 September: Feast of the Madonna of Pierno San Fele hosts the Basilicata International Film Festival in August, and the Feast of Madonna di Pierno, which has been celebrated since 1139 AD, also in August. San Fele is also known as the birthplace of San Giustino de Jacobis (on 9 October 1800), whose home has been restored and

2774-613: The Portuguese Colónia closely reflects the Latin original. In some cases, no standardised spelling is available, either because the language itself is unwritten (even unanalysed) or because there are competing non-standard spellings. Use of a misspelled endonym is perhaps more problematic than the respectful use of an existing exonym. Finally, an endonym may be a plural noun and may not naturally extend itself to adjectival usage in another language like English, which has

2847-529: The Province of Guangdong ( 广东 ; Guǎngdōng ). However, older English exonyms are sometimes used in certain contexts, for example: Peking (Beijing; duck , opera , etc.), Tsingtao (Qingdao), and Canton (Guangdong). In some cases the traditional English exonym is based on a local Chinese variety instead of Mandarin , in the case of Xiamen , where the name Amoy is closer to the Hokkien pronunciation. In

2920-510: The Russians used the village name of Chechen , medieval Europeans took the tribal name Tatar as emblematic for the whole Mongolic confederation (and then confused it with Tartarus , a word for Hell , to produce Tartar ), and the Magyar invaders were equated with the 500-years-earlier Hunnish invaders in the same territory, and were called Hungarians . The Germanic invaders of

2993-454: The UK in 1947, many regions and cities have been renamed in accordance with local languages, or to change the English spelling to more closely match the indigenous local name. The name Madras , now Chennai , may be a special case . When the city was first settled by English people , in the early 17th century, both names were in use. They possibly referred to different villages which were fused into

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3066-534: The United States, traditional Neapolitan has had considerable contact with English and the Sicilian languages spoken by Sicilian and Calabrian immigrants living alongside Neapolitan-speaking immigrants and so the Neapolitan in the US is now significantly different from the contemporary Neapolitan spoken in Naples . English words are often used in place of Neapolitan words, especially among second-generation speakers . On

3139-474: The area was deforested due to a timber boom during the 19th century and to clear land for farming, part of the Comune of San Fele includes a national park with lush forestland dominated by oak, maple, beech and mountain pine. Because San Fele is located at a higher altitude, this is a restful place to escape the heat of summer and to see pristine nature, including San Fele's small and charming waterfalls or "cascade". San Fele feast days include: January 20: Feast of

3212-430: The case of Beijing , the adoption of the exonym by media outlets quickly gave rise to a hyperforeignised pronunciation, with the result that many English speakers actualize the j in Beijing as / ʒ / . One exception of Pinyin standardization in mainland China is the spelling of the province Shaanxi , which is the mixed Gwoyeu Romatzyh –Pinyin spelling of the province. That is because if Pinyin were used to spell

3285-409: The case of endonyms and exonyms of language names (glossonyms), Chinese , German , and Dutch , for example, are English-language exonyms for the languages that are endonymously known as Zhōngwén ( 中文 ), Deutsch , and Nederlands , respectively. By their relation to endonyms, all exonyms can be divided into three main categories: Sometimes, a place name may be unable to use many of

3358-438: The connection unrecognizable to those without knowledge of Neapolitan. The most striking phonological difference is the Neapolitan weakening of unstressed vowels into schwa ( schwa is pronounced like the a in about or the u in upon ). However, it is also possible (and quite common for some Neapolitans) to speak standard Italian with a "Neapolitan accent"; that is, by pronouncing un-stressed vowels as schwa or by pronouncing

3431-651: The development of /mb/ as /mm/ ~ [mː] ( tammuro vs Italian tamburo "drum"), also consistently reflected in spelling. Other effects of the Oscan substratum are postulated, but substratum claims are highly controversial. As in many other languages in the Italian Peninsula , Neapolitan has an adstratum greatly influenced by other Romance languages ( Catalan , Spanish and Franco-Provençal above all), Germanic languages and Greek (both ancient and modern). The language had never been standardised, and

3504-864: The endonym Nederland is singular, while all the aforementioned translations except Irish are plural. Exonyms can also be divided into native and borrowed, e.g., from a third language. For example, the Slovene exonyms Dunaj ( Vienna ) and Benetke ( Venice ) are native, but the Avar name of Paris, Париж ( Parizh ) is borrowed from Russian Париж ( Parizh ), which comes from Polish Paryż , which comes from Italian Parigi . A substantial proportion of English-language exonyms for places in continental Europe are borrowed (or adapted) from French; for example: Many exonyms result from adaptations of an endonym into another language, mediated by differences in phonetics, while others may result from translation of

3577-404: The endonym, or as a reflection of the specific relationship an outsider group has with a local place or geographical feature. According to James Matisoff , who introduced the term autonym into linguistics , exonyms can also arise from the "egocentric" tendency of in-groups to identify themselves with "mankind in general", producing an endonym that out groups would not use, while another source

3650-555: The historical event called the Nanking Massacre (1937) uses the city's older name because that was the name of the city at the time of occurrence. Likewise, many Korean cities like Busan and Incheon (formerly Pusan and Inchǒn respectively) also underwent changes in spelling due to changes in romanization, even though the Korean pronunciations have largely stayed the same. Exonyms and endonyms must not be confused with

3723-522: The intransitive and reflexive verbs take èssere for their auxiliary. For example, we have: Aggio AUX .have. 1SG . PRES stato be. PTCP . PAST a in Napule Naples ajere. yesterday Aggio stato a Napule ajere. AUX.have.1SG.PRES be.PTCP.PAST in Naples yesterday I was in Naples yesterday. Sono AUX .be. 1S . PRES stato be. PTCP . PAST

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3796-426: The letter j . The following English pronunciation guidelines are based on General American pronunciation, and the values used may not apply to other dialects. (See also: International Phonetic Alphabet chart for English dialects .) All Romance languages are closely related. Although Neapolitan shares a high degree of its vocabulary with Italian, the official language of Italy, differences in pronunciation often make

3869-420: The letter s as [ ʃ ] (like the sh in ship ) instead of / s / (like the s in sea or the ss in pass ) when the letter is in initial position followed by a consonant, but not when it is followed by a dental occlusive / t / or / d / (at least in the purest form of the language) but by otherwise using only entirely standard words and grammatical forms. This is not Neapolitan properly, but rather

3942-820: The letters when transliterated into an exonym because of the corresponding language's lack of common sounds. Māori , having only one liquid consonant , is an example of this here. London (originally Latin : Londinium ), for example, is known by the cognate exonyms: An example of a translated exonym is the name for the Netherlands ( Nederland in Dutch) used, respectively, in German ( Niederlande ), French ( Pays-Bas ), Italian ( Paesi Bassi ), Spanish ( Países Bajos ), Irish ( An Ísiltír ), Portuguese ( Países Baixos ) and Romanian ( Țările de Jos ), all of which mean " Low Countries ". However,

4015-406: The masculine plural is often signaled orthographically, that is, by altering the spelling. As an example, consider the word guaglione , which means "boy" or (in the feminine form) "girl": More will be said about these orthographically changing nouns in the section on Neapolitan nouns. A couple of notes about consonant doubling: The Neapolitan indefinite articles, corresponding to the English

4088-599: The national level to have it recognized as an official minority language of Italy. It is a recognized ISO 639 Joint Advisory Committee language with the ISO 639-3 language code of nap . Here is the IPA pronunciation of the Neapolitan spoken in the city of Naples: Neapolitan orthography consists of 22 Latin letters. Much like Italian orthography , it does not contain k, w, x, or y even though these letters might be found in some foreign words; unlike Italian, it does contain

4161-512: The neuter form and a unique plural formation, as well as historical phonological developments, which often obscure the cognacy of lexical items. Its evolution has been similar to that of Italian and other Romance languages from their roots in Vulgar Latin . It may reflect a pre-Latin Oscan substratum , as in the pronunciation of the d sound as an r sound ( rhotacism ) at the beginning of

4234-434: The number of exonyms were over-optimistic and not possible to realise in an intended way. The reason would appear to be that many exonyms have become common words in a language and can be seen as part of the language's cultural heritage. In some situations, the use of exonyms can be preferred. For instance, in multilingual cities such as Brussels , which is known for its linguistic tensions between Dutch- and French-speakers,

4307-623: The other hand, the effect of Standard Italian on Neapolitan in Italy has been similar because of the increasing displacement of Neapolitan by Standard Italian in daily speech . Neapolitan is a Romance language and is considered as part of Southern Italo-Romance. There are notable differences among the various dialects, but they are all generally mutually intelligible. Italian and Neapolitan are of variable mutual comprehensibility, depending on affective and linguistic factors. There are notable grammatical differences, such as Neapolitan having nouns in

4380-463: The population of San Fele is about 3,000 people, down from over 10,000 in the 1870s. The primary industry in San Fele is agriculture, and the area features lovely woodlands and hiking trails, and is known for the fertility of its volcanic soil which produces the excellent aglianico wines for which Basilicata is known, as well as mushrooms, truffles, cheese, game, and handmade pasta. Although much of

4453-557: The pronunciation for several names of Chinese cities such as Beijing and Nanjing has not changed for quite some time while in Mandarin Chinese (although the prestige dialect shifted from Nanjing dialect to Beijing dialect during the 19th century), they were called Peking and Nanking in English due to the older Chinese postal romanization convention, based largely on the Nanjing dialect . Pinyin , based largely on

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4526-470: The pronunciation is different for the two. The grave accent ( à , è , ò ) is used to denote open vowels, and the acute accent ( é , í , ó , ú ) is used to denote closed vowels, with alternative ì and ù . However, accent marks are not commonly used in the actual spelling of words except when they occur on the final syllable of a word, such as Totò , arrivà , or pecché , and when they appear here in other positions, it

4599-520: The propensity to use the adjectives for describing culture and language. Sometimes the government of a country tries to endorse the use of an endonym instead of traditional exonyms outside the country: Following the 1979 declaration of Hanyu Pinyin spelling as the standard romanisation of Chinese , many Chinese endonyms have successfully replaced English exonyms, especially city and most provincial names in mainland China , for example: Beijing ( 北京 ; Běijīng ), Qingdao ( 青岛 ; Qīngdǎo ), and

4672-474: The province, it would be indistinguishable from its neighboring province Shanxi , where the pronunciations of the two provinces only differ by tones, which are usually not written down when used in English. In Taiwan, however, the standardization of Hanyu Pinyin has only seen mixed results. In Taipei , most (but not all) street and district names shifted to Hanyu Pinyin. For example, the Sinyi District

4745-563: The results of geographical renaming as in the case of Saint Petersburg , which became Petrograd ( Петроград ) in 1914, Leningrad ( Ленинград ) in 1924, and again Saint Petersburg ( Санкт-Петербург , Sankt-Peterbúrg ) in 1991. In this case, although Saint Petersburg has a Dutch etymology, it was never a Dutch exonym for the city between 1914 and 1991, just as Nieuw Amsterdam , the Dutch name of New York City until 1664,

4818-585: The songs of Pino Daniele and the Nuova Compagnia di Canto Popolare . The language has no official status within Italy and is not taught in schools. The University of Naples Federico II offers (from 2003) courses in Campanian Dialectology at the faculty of Sociology, whose actual aim is not to teach students to speak the language but to study its history, usage, literature and social role. There are also ongoing legislative attempts at

4891-552: The specific variety spoken natively in the city of Naples and the immediately surrounding Naples metropolitan area and Campania . Largely due to massive Southern Italian migration in the late 19th century and 20th century, there are also a number of Neapolitan speakers in Italian diaspora communities in the United States , Canada , Australia , Brazil , Argentina , Uruguay , Mexico , and Venezuela . However, in

4964-475: The spelling is the same across languages, the pronunciation can differ. For example, the city of Paris is spelled the same way in French and English, but the French pronunciation [ paʁi ] is different from the English pronunciation [ ˈpærɪs ]. For places considered to be of lesser significance, attempts to reproduce local names have been made in English since the time of the Crusades . Livorno , for instance,

5037-510: The use of exonyms to avoid this kind of problem. For example, it is now common for Spanish speakers to refer to the Turkish capital as Ankara rather than use the Spanish exonym Angora . Another example, it is now common for Italian speakers to refer to some African states as Mauritius and Seychelles rather than use the Italian exonyms Maurizio and Seicelle . According to the United Nations Statistics Division : Time has, however, shown that initial ambitious attempts to rapidly decrease

5110-449: The word for tree has three different spellings: arbero , arvero and àvaro . Neapolitan has enjoyed a rich literary, musical and theatrical history (notably Giambattista Basile , Eduardo Scarpetta , his son Eduardo De Filippo , Salvatore Di Giacomo and Totò ). Thanks to this heritage and the musical work of Renato Carosone in the 1950s, Neapolitan is still in use in popular music, even gaining national popularity in

5183-436: The years, the endonym may have undergone phonetic changes, either in the original language or the borrowing language, thus changing an endonym into an exonym, as in the case of Paris , where the s was formerly pronounced in French. Another example is the endonym for the German city of Cologne , where the Latin original of Colonia has evolved into Köln in German, while the Italian and Spanish exonym Colonia or

5256-527: Was Leghorn because it was an Italian port essential to English merchants and, by the 18th century, to the British Navy ; not far away, Rapallo , a minor port on the same sea, never received an exonym. In earlier times, the name of the first tribe or village encountered became the exonym for the whole people beyond. Thus, the Romans used the tribal names Graecus (Greek) and Germanus (Germanic),

5329-445: Was displaced, and the area was affected by banditry. Famous brigands included Giovanni Fortunato, known as "Coppa", Vito Di Gianni, called "Totaro" and Francesco Fasanella, called "Tinna", who were part of the infamous Carmine Crocco. A television miniseries about these infamous highway bandits, Il generale dei briganti  [ it ] , was made in 2012. As a result of this upheaval, and partly due to drought, deforestation and

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