52-561: See text Scolytus is a genus of bark beetles (subfamily Scolytinae). It includes several species notorious for destroying trees in the forests. The Dutch elm disease is spread in North America by two species : the native elm bark beetle, Hylurgopinus rufipes , and the European elm bark beetle, Scolytus multistriatus . In Europe, while the aforementioned Scolytus multistriatus again acts as vector for infection, it
104-484: A 200% increase in area burned by wildland fires, and an 80% increase in air pollution from those fires. Researchers from the Canadian Forest Service have studied the relationship between the carbon cycle and forest fires, logging and tree deaths. They concluded by 2020, the pine beetle outbreak will have released 270 megatonnes of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere from Canadian forests. There
156-401: A century of forest fire suppression have contributed to the size and severity of the outbreak, and the outbreak itself may, with similar infestations, have significant effects on the capability of northern forests to remove greenhouse gases (such as CO 2 ) from the atmosphere. Because of its impact on forestry, the transcriptome and the genome of the beetle have been sequenced. It was
208-500: A few days of extreme cold kill most mountain pine beetles and have kept outbreaks in the past naturally contained. The infestation, which (by November 2008) has killed about half of the province's lodgepole pines (33 million acres or 135,000 km ) is an order of magnitude larger than any previously recorded outbreak. One reason for unprecedented host tree mortality may be due to that the mountain pine beetles have higher reproductive success in lodgepole pine trees growing in areas where
260-399: A locator by insects that are attracted by it, such as flies, which may intend to harm the bark beetle itself. These chemicals interact with pine trees as the bark beetle's host, based on the behavioral, physiological, and biochemical effects of monoterpenes. Monoterpenes are a chemical fragrance that plays a significant role in tree-insect interactions, specifically within pine trees. It
312-428: A number of insecticidal and fungicidal compounds that can kill, injure, or immobilize attacking insects. Sap is one of the first lines of defense of pines against bark beetles. Released sap or resins can plug bored holes of bark beetles and seal wounds. Resins also trap insect pests making some initial entry by bark beetles unsuccessful. Chemical compounds can also be induced by tree species that bind with amino acids in
364-428: A role in both insect survival and the continuation and intensification of an outbreak. Adverse weather conditions (such as winter lows of -40°) can reduce the beetle populations and slow the spread, but the insects can recover quickly and resume their attack on otherwise healthy forests. Climate change and the associated changing weather patterns occurring worldwide have a direct effect on biology, population ecology, and
416-516: A smaller scale, including: Around the turn of the millennium the US Forest Service tested chitosan , a biopesticide , to pre-arm pine trees to defend themselves against MPB. The US Forest Service results show colloidal chitosan elicited a 40% increase in pine resin (P<0.05) in southern pine trees. One milliliter chitosan per 10 gallons water was applied to the ground area within the drip ring of loblolly pine trees. The application
468-576: A tree and lay their eggs in the phloem of the tree. This usually occurs in mid to late summer. Once the eggs hatch, the larvae then live in the tree, feeding on the living tissues below the bark, often leading to death of the tree if enough larvae are present. At the end of the larval stage, chambers are usually constructed for the pupae to overwinter until they are ready to emerge as an adult. Bark beetles are distinct in their morphology due to their small size and cylindrical shape. Bark beetles also have small appendages, with antennae that can be folded into
520-494: Is an aggregation pheromone that attracts insects to the plant/ tree host, including the bark beetle. Monoterpenes has also been known to prevent fungal growth and are also toxic to bark beetles at high vapor concentrations. This latter process demonstrates a defense of pines using monoterpenes against the bark beetle. There are around 6,000 described species of bark beetles in 246 genera, placed into 26 distinct tribes . Bark beetles are most commonly recognized by their impact on
572-520: Is moderately dangerous to mammals, including humans; it is slightly more toxic to birds and aquatic ecosystems than permethrin, as well as extremely toxic to beneficial insects. In 2015 fall and burn was the technique being used in Alberta where there is hope of limiting the outbreak to western Canada, preventing its spread to northern Saskatchewan and further towards eastern Canada where jack pine may be vulnerable as far east as Nova Scotia . By 2022
SECTION 10
#1732780148358624-526: Is much less effective than the large elm bark beetle Scolytus scolytus . Species include: This Scolytinae -related article is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Bark beetle Cortylini Cryphalini Crypturgini Dryocoetini Hylastini Hylesinini Hylurgini Hypoborini Ipini Phloeosinini Phloeotribini Polygraphini Scolytini Scolytoplatypodini Taphrorychini Thamnurgini Tomicini Xyleborini Xyloterini A bark beetle
676-539: Is the common name for the subfamily of beetles Scolytinae . Previously, this was considered a distinct family ( Scolytidae ), but is now understood to be a specialized clade of the "true weevil " family ( Curculionidae ). Although the term "bark beetle" refers to the fact that many species feed in the inner bark (phloem) layer of trees, the subfamily also has many species with other lifestyles, including some that bore into wood, feed in fruit and seeds, or tunnel into herbaceous plants. Well-known species are members of
728-406: Is the spruce ips Ips typographus . A tiny bark beetle, the coffee berry borer , Hypothenemus hampei is a major pest on coffee plantations around the world. Bark beetles go through four stages of life: egg, larvae, pupae, and adult, with the time to develop often relying on the species as well as the current temperature. While there is variation among species, generally adults first bore into
780-430: Is yet to be an accepted study of the carbon cycle effect over a future period of time for North American forests, but scientists believe we are at a "tipping point" of our Western Forests becoming a source of carbon off-put that is greater than that of a " carbon sink ". Other scientists say that this "tipping point" will reverse itself as new forest life is established. This new growth will remove more carbon dioxide than
832-461: The University of Colorado have investigated the impacts of beetle-infested forests on the water cycle , in particular, snow accumulation and melt. They concluded that dead forests will accumulate more snowpack as a result of thinner tree canopies and decreased snow sublimation . These thinned canopies also cause faster snowmelt by allowing more sunlight through to the forest floor and lowering
884-494: The environment (the weather and temperature). However, as climate change causes mountain areas to become warmer and drier, pine beetles have more power to infest and destroy the forest ecosystems, such as the whitebark pine forests of the Rocky Mountains. Increased temperatures also allow the pine beetle to increase their life cycle by 100%: it only takes a single year instead of two for the pine beetle to develop. As
936-476: The extant mostly Neotropical genus Microborus is also known from the Cenomanian aged Burmese amber of Myanmar. Bark beetles are preyed upon by birds such as woodpeckers , other beetles such as the black-bellied clerid ( Enoclerus lecontei ) and certain other members of family Cleridae , flies such as the long-legged flies (Dolichopodidae), and certain phoretic mites. Phoretic mites use
988-411: The mountain pine beetle ( Dendroctonus ponderosae ), do attack living trees, many bark beetle species feed on weakened, dying, or dead spruce, fir, and hemlock. Most restrict their breeding area to one part of the tree: twig, branch, stem, or root collar. Some breed in trees of only one species, while others in numerous species of tree. In undisturbed forests, bark beetles serve the purpose of hastening
1040-639: The type genus Scolytus , namely the European elm bark beetle S. multistriatus and the large elm bark beetle S. scolytus , which like the American elm bark beetle Hylurgopinus rufipes , transmit Dutch elm disease fungi ( Ophiostoma ). The mountain pine beetle Dendroctonus ponderosae , southern pine beetle Dendroctonus frontalis , and their near relatives are major pests of conifer forests in North America. A similarly aggressive species in Europe
1092-551: The Rockies are not the only forests that have been affected by the mountain pine beetle. Due to temperature changes and wind patterns, the pine beetle has now spread through the Continental Divide of the Rockies and has invaded the fragile boreal forests of Alberta . Management techniques include harvesting at the leading edges of "green attack", as well as other techniques that can be used to manage infestations on
SECTION 20
#17327801483581144-415: The Rockies have not adapted to deal with pine beetle infestations , they lack the defenses to fight the beetles. Warmer weather patterns , drought , and beetle defense mechanisms together dries out sap in pine trees , which is the main mechanism of defense that trees have against the beetle, as it drowns the beetles and their eggs. This makes it easier for the beetle to infest and release chemicals into
1196-602: The United States for use in the prevention of pine beetle infestations. Carbaryl is considered by the EPA to likely be carcinogenic to humans. It is moderately toxic to wild birds and partially to highly toxic to aquatic organisms. Permethrin is easily metabolized in mammalian livers, so is less dangerous to humans. Birds are also practically not affected by permethrin. Negative effects can be seen in aquatic ecosystems, as well as it being very toxic to beneficial insects. Bifenthrin
1248-582: The bark beetle to move from one location to the next, but some of these mite species also prey on the eggs or larvae of the bark beetles or act as parasites. The braconid wasp Spathius canadensis is known to parasitize the native elm bark beetle Hylurgopinus rufipes . Some bark beetles form a symbiotic relationship with certain Ophiostomatales fungi , and are named " ambrosia beetles ". The ambrosia beetles (such as Xyleborus ) feed on fungal "gardens" cultivated on woody tissue within
1300-421: The bark. The beetles introduce blue stain fungus into the sapwood that prevents the tree from repelling and killing the attacking beetles with tree pitch flow. The fungus also blocks water and nutrient transport within the tree. On the tree exterior, this results in popcorn-shaped masses of resin, called "pitch tubes", where the beetles have entered. The joint action of larval feeding and fungal colonization kills
1352-1009: The beetle and its microbial associates affected wide areas of lodgepole pine forest, including more than 160,000 km (40 million acres) of forest in British Columbia. The outbreak in the Rocky Mountain National Park in Colorado began in 1996 and has caused the destruction of millions of acres/hectares of ponderosa and lodgepole pine trees. At the peak of the outbreak in 2009, over 16,000 km (4.0 million acres) were affected. The outbreak then declined due to better environmental conditions, but many vulnerable trees had already been destroyed. Mountain pine beetles inhabit ponderosa , whitebark , lodgepole , Scots , jack , limber , Rocky Mountain bristlecone , and Great Basin bristlecone pine trees. Normally, these insects play an important role in
1404-545: The beetle population in Alberta had dropped by 94 per cent when compared to its peak in 2019, according to the Alberta Forestry service. While weather and drought are important drivers of wildfires in sub boreal forests, bottom-up drivers of elevation and vegetation, including the fuel legacies of bark beetle outbreaks, are crucial factors influencing high-severity burning. The outbreak of mountain pine beetles in
1456-455: The body and large mandibles to aid in the excavation of woody tissue. The legs of most bark beetles are very short and can be retracted or folded into the body. The combination of their shape and appendages greatly helps in the excavation of woody tissue. The eyes are also flattened and hypothesized to help see in low-light conditions. Bark beetles feed and breed between the bark and the wood of various tree species. While some species, such as
1508-571: The early 2010s, ten times larger than previous outbreaks, created dead pine stands representing a potential fire hazard, prompting the BC government to direct fuel management activities in beetle areas as recommended in the 2003 Firestorm Provincial Review. Huge swaths of central British Columbia (BC) and parts of Alberta have been hit badly, with over 40 million acres (160,000 km ) of BC's forests affected. Previously, cold spells had killed off bark beetles , but with warmer weather they attacked
1560-488: The fact that these rising temperatures provide the optimal conditions for larval growth, the development time that the larvae need to become an adult also drops, from 8–9 weeks to 6–7 weeks. As a third the result of global warming, the breeding season of the bark beetle is extended, meaning that number of generations per year will increase. All these factors contribute to an increasing amount of bark beetles and will thus likely result in an increasing frequency of infestations. In
1612-551: The forests. The longer breeding season is another factor encouraging beetle proliferation. The combination of warmer weather, attack by beetles, and mismanagement during past years has led to a substantial increase in the severity of forest fires in Montana. According to a study done for the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency by the Harvard School of Engineering and Applied Science, portions of Montana will experience
Scolytus - Misplaced Pages Continue
1664-475: The gut of bark beetles, reducing their ability to process woody materials. When in large quantities, the sheer number of beetles can overwhelm the tree's defenses with resulting impacts on the lumber industry , water quality, fish and wildlife, and property values. The oldest known member of the group is Cylindrobrotus from the Early Cretaceous ( Barremian ) aged Lebanese amber . A species of
1716-418: The higher elevation Rocky Mountains and Cascades were too cold for their survival. Under normal seasonal freezing weather conditions in the lower elevations, the forest ecosystems that pine beetles inhabit are kept in a balance by factors such as tree defense mechanisms, beetle defense mechanisms, and freezing temperatures. It is a simple relationship between a host (the forest), an agent (the beetle) and
1768-414: The host tree within a few weeks of successful attack (the fungus and feeding by the larvae girdles the tree, cutting off the flow of water and nutrients). In recent years, drought conditions have further weakened trees, making them more vulnerable and unable to defend against attack. When the tree is first attacked, it remains green. Usually within a year of attack, the needles will have turned red. This means
1820-442: The inner bark and phloem, pheromones are released, attracting male and female beetles to the same tree. The attacking beetles produce more pheromones, resulting in a mass attack that overcomes the tree's defenses, and results in attacks on adjacent trees. Natural predators of the mountain pine beetle include certain birds, particularly woodpeckers, and various insects. Mountain pine beetles affect pine trees by laying eggs under
1872-505: The life of a forest, attacking old or weakened trees, and speeding development of a younger forest. However, unusually hot, dry summers and mild winters in 2004–2007 throughout the United States and Canada, along with forests filled with mature lodgepole pine, led to an unprecedented epidemic. The outbreak may have been the largest forest insect blight seen in North America since European colonization. Monocultural replanting, and
1924-411: The lumber industry. Massive outbreaks of mountain pine beetles in western North America after about 2005 have killed millions of acres of forest from New Mexico to British Columbia . Bark beetles enter trees by boring holes in the bark of the tree, sometimes using the lenticels , or the pores plants use for gas exchange, to pass through the bark of the tree. As the larvae consume the inner tissues of
1976-544: The mature trees they are replacing would have. According to a 2016 study from the Pacific Institute for Climate Solutions rising levels of carbon dioxide may cancel out the pine beetle impact in British Columbia by 2020. The fertilization effect of the increased CO 2 levels has returned BC forests to a carbon sink as of 2016 per Werner Kurz of the Canadian Forest Service. Hydrologists from
2028-425: The past, fire has been suggested as potential mechanism for controlling bark beetle populations; however, most studies of wildfire after beetle outbreaks have found no effect of beetle-caused tree mortality on wildfire size or severity. Bark beetles can also be transporters of different plant pathogens such as cankers. The transport of the pathogens also result in the increase of fungi, mites and nematodes within
2080-407: The pine tree and spreading blue stain mold. Searching out, removing, and destroying the brood in infested trees is the best way to slow the spread of mountain pine beetles; however, it may not protect specific trees. Spraying trees to prevent attack is the most effective way to protect a small number of high-value trees from mountain pine beetles. Carbaryl, permethrin and bifenthrin are registered in
2132-404: The population of eruptive insects, such as the mountain pine beetle. This is because temperature is a factor which determines insect development and population success. Mountain pine beetles are a species native to Western North America. Prior to climatic and temperature changes, the mountain pine beetle predominately lived and attacked lodgepole and ponderosa pine trees at lower elevations, as
Scolytus - Misplaced Pages Continue
2184-440: The recycling and decomposition of dead and dying wood and renewing the forest. However, a few species are aggressive and can develop large populations that invade and kill healthy trees and are therefore known as pests . Bark beetles often attack trees that are already weakened by disease , overcrowding, conspecific beetles, or physical damage. In defense, healthier trees may produce sap, resin or latex , which often contains
2236-450: The reliance on the fungi for food and the fungi's ability to overcome some of the plant's chemical defenses. While the majority of ambrosia beetles infect dead trees, several species will infect trees considered healthy or under stress. The bark beetle's pheromones , including kairomones , can attract other insects. The pheromones distinguished as kairomones are hormones, pheromones, or allomones of bark beetles, which in turn are used as
2288-533: The second beetle genome to be sequenced. Beetles develop through four stages: egg , larva , pupa and adult . Except for a few days during the summer when adults emerge from brood trees and fly to attack new host trees, all life stages are spent beneath the bark. In low elevation stands and in warm years, mountain pine beetles require one year to complete a generation. At high elevations, where summers are typically cooler, life cycles may vary from one to two years Female beetles initiate attacks. As they chew into
2340-452: The tree is dying or dead, and the beetles have moved to another tree. Within three to four years after the attack, very little foliage is left, so the trees appear grey. As beetle populations increase or more trees become stressed because of drought or other causes, the population may quickly increase and spread. Healthy trees are then attacked, and huge areas of mature pine stands may be threatened or killed. Warm summers and mild winters play
2392-471: The tree, luring other beetles in an attempt to overcome the weakened defense system of the pine tree. As a consequence, the host (forest) becomes more vulnerable to the disease-causing agent (the beetle). Pine forests in British Columbia have been devastated by a pine beetle infestation, which has expanded unhindered since 1998 at least in part due to the lack of severe winters since that time;
2444-478: The tree, they often consume enough of the phloem to girdle the tree, cutting off the spread of water and nutrients. Ambrosia beetles are also known to aid in the spread of pathogens, such as diseases that can cause cankers , further damaging the trees they infect. Like many other insects, Scolytinae emit pheromones to attract conspecifics , which are thus drawn to trees already colonized by bark beetles. This can result in heavy infestations and eventually death of
2496-400: The tree. Mountain pine beetle The mountain pine beetle ( Dendroctonus ponderosae ) is a species of bark beetle native to the forests of western North America from Mexico to central British Columbia . It has a hard black exoskeleton, and measures approximately 5 millimetres ( 1 ⁄ 4 in), about the size of a grain of rice. In western North America, an outbreak of
2548-640: The tree. Many are also attracted to ethanol produced as a byproduct of microbial growth in the dead woody tissues. Increases in international trade, as well as the use of wood containers for storage, has aided numerous species of bark beetle in spreading across the world. They are also extremely adaptable and able to quickly spread through new environments, as seen in France with eleven different species. Bark beetle infestations are also predicted to increase with global warming , meaning infestations will most likely increase in frequency as temperatures rise. Besides
2600-427: The tree. Ambrosia beetles carry the fungal spores in either their gut or special structures, called mycangia , and infect the trees as they attack them. Once a beetle chooses a tree, they release spores of this fungus along tunnels within the tree. These spores grow and eventually produce fruiting structures to be consumed by the beetles. This can allow for ambrosia beetles to indirectly feed from more tree species due to
2652-547: The trees have not experienced frequent beetle epidemics, which includes much of the current outbreak area. In 2007 the outbreak spread, via unusually strong winds, over the continental divide to Alberta . An epidemic also started, be it at a lower rate, in 1999 in Colorado , Wyoming , and Montana . The United States forest service predicts that between 2011 and 2013 virtually all 5 million acres (20,000 km ) of Colorado's lodgepole pine trees over five inches (127 mm) in diameter will be lost. The whitebark forests of
SECTION 50
#17327801483582704-456: Was repeated three times from May through September in 2008. The chitosan was responsible for eliciting natural defense responses of increased resin pitch-outs, with the ability to destroy 37% of the pine beetle eggs. Dr. Jim Linden, Microbiologist, Colorado State University, stated the chitosan increased resin pitch-outs to push the mountain pine beetle out of the tree, preventing the MPB from entering
#357642