89-566: This article is about the name. For the Hindu treatises on the arts and crafts, see Shilpa Shastras . Shilpa Gender Female Language(s) Hindi Sanskrit Origin Meaning "sculpture" "statue" "work of art" Region of origin India Other names Related names Silpa Shilpa ( Devanagari : शिल्पा )
178-441: A Hindu temple in a symmetrical, self-repeating structure derived from central beliefs, myths, cardinality and mathematical principles. The four cardinal directions help create the axis of a Hindu temple, around which is formed a perfect square in the space available. The circle of mandala circumscribes the square. The square is considered divine for its perfection and as a symbolic product of knowledge and human thought, while circle
267-433: A means to transmit knowledge and spiritual themes. The first chapter of Shilpa Shastra Manasara discusses the measurement principles for carpentry. The 9th-century version of Mayamata text of Tamil Nadu and 16th-century version of Shilparatna of Odisha describe takshaka and vardhaki as wood Shilpins; takshaka possesses the knowledge of wood types and practices the art of cutting wood, while vardhaki possesses
356-465: A region's rocky terrain encouraged monolithic rock-cut temple architecture. In regions where stones were unavailable, brick temples flourished. Hindu temple architecture has historically been affected by the building material available in each region, its "tonal value, texture and structural possibilities" states Michell. Dravidian architecture is an architectural idiom in Hindu temple architecture that emerged from South India , reaching its final form by
445-442: A small, perfect square, windowless, enclosed space without ornamentation that represents universal essence. In or near this space is typically a murti . This is the main deity image, and this varies with each temple. Often it is this idol that gives it a local name, such as Vishnu temple, Krishna temple, Rama temple, Narayana temple, Siva temple, Lakshmi temple, Ganesha temple, Durga temple, Hanuman temple, Surya temple, and others. It
534-413: A symbolic central core at the diagonal intersection, and is also a meditative layout. The 9 pada design has a sacred surrounded centre, and is the template for the smallest temple. Older Hindu temple vastumandalas may use the 9 through 49 pada series, but 64 is considered the most sacred geometric grid in Hindu temples. It is also called Manduka, Bhekapada or Ajira in various ancient Sanskrit texts. Each pada
623-656: A temple project was not allowed and instead, the artist expressed the sacred values in the visual form through a temple, for the most part anonymously. The sponsors used contracts for the building tasks. Though great masters probably had assistants to help complete principal images in a temple, the reliefs panels in a Hindu temple were "almost certainly the inspiration of a single artist". Along with guilds, surviving texts suggest that several schools of Hindu temple architecture had developed in ancient India. Each school developed its own gurukuls (study centres) and texts. Of these, state Bharne and Krusche, two became most prominent:
712-413: Is a symmetry-driven structure, with many variations, on a square grid of padas , depicting perfect geometric shapes such as circles and squares. Susan Lewandowski states that the underlying principle in a Hindu temple is built around the belief that all things are one and that everything is connected. A temple, states Lewandowski, "replicates again and again the Hindu beliefs in the parts mirroring, and at
801-645: Is also associated to the cult of Vāsudeva and Saṃkarṣaṇa , and dated to the 1st century BCE. Though there are hardly any remains of stone Hindu temples before the Gupta dynasty in the 5th century CE, there probably were earlier structures in timber-based architecture. The rock-cut Udayagiri Caves (401 CE) are among the most important early sites, built with royal sponsorship, recorded by inscriptions, and with impressive sculpture. The earliest preserved Hindu temples are simple cell-like stone temples, some rock-cut and others structural, as at Temple 17 at Sanchi . By
890-722: Is an Indian feminine given name which means "sculpture", "statue" and "work of art". Notable people with the given name Shilpa [ edit ] Shilpa Anand (born 1982), Indian actress and model Shilpa Raju (born 1992), Indian singer Shilpa Rao (born 1984), Indian singer Shilpa Ray , American singer-songwriter Shilpa Saklani (born 1962), Indian actress Shilpa Shetty (born 1975), Indian actress and model Shilpa Shinde (born 1967), Indian actress Shilpa Shirodkar (born 1973), Indian actress Shilpa Shukla (born 1982), Indian actress Shilpa Singh (born 1990), Indian beauty pageant winner Shilpa Tulaskar (born 1957), Indian actress Notable people with
979-437: Is an extension of Vedic rituals of three fires. This symbolism is also found among Greek and other ancient civilizations, through the gnomon . In Hindu temple manuals, design plans are described with 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81 up to 1024 squares; 1 pada is considered the simplest plan, as a seat for a hermit or devotee to sit and meditate on, do yoga, or make offerings with Vedic fire in front. The second design of 4 padas has
SECTION 10
#17327834873681068-590: Is as if the Southeast Asian architects learned from "the theoretical prescriptions about temple building" from Indian texts, but never saw one. They reassembled the elements with their own creative interpretations. The Hindu temples found in Southeast Asia are more conservative and far more strongly link the Mount Meru -related cosmological elements of Indian thought than the Hindu temples found in
1157-496: Is called pradakshina . Large temples also have pillared halls called mandapa. One on the east side, serves as the waiting room for pilgrims and devotees. The mandapa may be a separate structure in older temples, but in newer temples this space is integrated into the temple superstructure. Mega temple sites have a main temple surrounded by smaller temples and shrines, but these are still arranged by principles of symmetry, grids and mathematical precision. An important principle found in
1246-470: Is conceptually assigned to a symbolic element, sometimes in the form of a deity or to a spirit or apasara. The central square(s) of the 64 is dedicated to the Brahman (not to be confused with Brahmin), and are called Brahma padas. In a Hindu temple's structure of symmetry and concentric squares, each concentric layer has significance. The outermost layer, Paisachika padas, signify aspects of Asuras and evil;
1335-459: Is considered earthly, human and observed in everyday life (moon, sun, horizon, water drop, rainbow). Each supports the other. The square is divided into perfect square grids. In large temples, this is often a 8×8 or 64-grid structure. In ceremonial temple superstructures, this is an 81 sub-square grid. The squares are called ‘‘padas’’. The square is symbolic and has Vedic origins from fire altar, Agni. The alignment along cardinal direction, similarly
1424-434: Is designed as a pyramid, conical or other mountain-like shape, once again using principle of concentric circles and squares (see below). Scholars such as Lewandowski state that this shape is inspired by cosmic mountain of Mount Meru or Himalayan Kailasa , the abode of gods according to its ancient mythology. In larger temples, the outer three padas are visually decorated with carvings, paintings or images meant to inspire
1513-683: Is empirical evidence of the state of metallurgical arts in 5th-century India. Arts were the domain of all classes and genders in ancient India. The ancient texts of Parashara state that all crafts were practised by anyone irrespective of their family's occupation. The Buddhist Jatakas mention Brahmana carpenters, the 4th-century text Baudhayana describes chariot builders, carpenters, brick-workers, potters and metal workers from people classified as Kshatriya, Vaishya and Shudra. Suttavibhanga describes builders and wheelwrights born to Shudra fathers and Brahmana mothers. The goldsmiths of Maharashtra included children born in cattle-herding families. There
1602-695: Is no particular community in Assam Valley that is exclusive to traditional crafts such as bamboo and cane. Present day, it is done by particularly the peasants irrespective of caste, community or creed. Apprentices joined and trained under masters. The best were adopted and recognised as members of various art guilds. The training began from childhood, and included studies about dharma , culture, reading, writing, mathematics, geometry, colors, tools, as well as trade secrets – these were called Tradition. Shilpins had formed śreṇi (guilds) in ancient India. Each guild formed its own laws and code of conduct, one
1691-531: Is not a square but is a rectangle consisting of stacked squares. Further, the temple explores a number of structures and shrines in 1:1, 1:2, 1:3, 2:5, 3:5 and 4:5 ratios. These ratios are exact, suggesting the architect intended to use these harmonic ratios, and the rectangle pattern was not a mistake, nor an arbitrary approximation. Other examples of non-square harmonic ratios are found at Naresar temple site of Madhya Pradesh and Nakti-Mata temple near Jaipur, Rajasthan. Michael Meister states that these exceptions mean
1780-410: Is not part of the temple superstructure, but may be on the boundary of the temple or just symbolically represented. The Paisachika padas, Manusha padas and Devika padas surround Brahma padas, which signifies creative energy and serves as the location for temple's primary idol for darsana. Finally at the very centre of Brahma padas is Garbhagruha ( Garbha - Centre, gruha - house; literally the centre of
1869-509: Is the most discussed process in these ancient shilpa shastras with metals. Kirk suggests that these Shastras diffused from India to other ancient cultures in Asia. While there is empirical evidence of high purity metallurgy and art works with other metals, some ancient Shilpa Shastras have been lost. For example, the 5th century Iron Pillar of Delhi , which stands 23 feet, weighs 6 tonnes and contains 99.72% iron without showing any signs of rust,
SECTION 20
#17327834873681958-424: Is this garbha-griya which devotees seek for ‘‘darsana’’ (literally, a sight of knowledge, or vision ). Above the vastu-purusha-mandala is a high superstructure called the shikhara in north India, and vimana in south India, that stretches towards the sky. Sometimes, in makeshift temples, the superstructure may be replaced with symbolic bamboo with few leaves at the top. The vertical dimension's cupola or dome
2047-794: The Deccan , Cave 3 of the Badami cave temples was cut out in 578 CE, and Cave 1 is probably slightly earlier. Other examples are found in Aihole and Pattadakal . By about the 7th century most main features of the Hindu temple were established along with theoretical texts on temple architecture and building methods. From between about the 7th and 13th centuries a large number of temples and their ruins have survived (though far fewer than once existed). Many regional styles developed, very often following political divisions, as large temples were typically built with royal patronage. The Vesara style originated in
2136-683: The Hindu Way of life . Hindu temple architecture and its various styles has had a profound influence on the stylistic origins of Buddhist architecture . Aspects seen on Buddhist architecture like the stupa may have been influenced by the shikhara , a stylistic element which in some regions evolved to the pagoda which are seen throughout Thailand , Cambodia , Nepal , China , Taiwan , Japan , Korea , Myanmar , and Vietnam . Remains of early elliptical shrines discovered in Besnagar (3rd-2nd century BCE) and Nagari (1st century BCE), may be
2225-623: The Hoysala empire (1000-1330 AD). The earliest examples of Pallava architecture are rock-cut temples dating from 610 to 690 CE and structural temples between 690 and 900 CE. The greatest accomplishments of the Pallava architecture are the rock-cut Group of Monuments at Mahabalipuram at Mahabalipuram , a UNESCO World Heritage Site , including the Shore Temple . This group includes both excavated pillared halls, with no external roof except
2314-978: The Pallavas , the Gangas , the Kadambas , the Rashtrakutas , the Chalukyas , the Hoysalas and Vijayanagara Empire among others have made substantial contribution to the evolution of the Dravida architecture. Of the different styles of temple architecture in India, the Nagara architecture of northern India and the Dravidian architecture of southern India are most common. Other styles are also found. For example,
2403-482: The Prana Vikara (shaped like a Tamil Om sign, [REDACTED] ) is also found. Methods of combining squares and circles to produce all of these plans are described in the Hindu texts. The temples were built by guilds of architects, artisans and workmen. Their knowledge and craft traditions, states Michell, were originally preserved by the oral tradition , later with palm-leaf manuscripts. The building tradition
2492-710: The Udayagiri Caves in Madhya Pradesh include those at Tigawa , Deogarh , Parvati Temple, Nachna (465), Bhitargaon , the largest Gupta brick temple to survive, Lakshman Brick Temple, Sirpur (600-625 CE); Rajiv Lochan temple , Rajim (7th-century). Gop Temple in Gujarat (c. 550 or later) is an oddity, with no surviving close comparator. No pre-7th century CE South Indian free-standing stone temples have survived. Examples of early major South Indian temples that have survived, some in ruins, include
2581-548: The 12th century or later), was typically added to older large temples. Possibly the oldest Hindu temples in Southeast Asia dates back to 2nd century BCE from the Funan site of Oc Eo in the Mekong Delta . They were probably dedicated to a sun god, Shiva and Vishnu. The temple were constructed using granite blocks and bricks, one with a small stepped pond. The earliest evidence trace to Sanskrit stone inscriptions found on
2670-410: The 12th or 13th century are sometimes referred to as medieval . However, this division does not reflect a major break in Hindu architecture, which continued to evolve gradually across these periods. The style of Hindu temple architecture is not only the result of the theology, spiritual ideas, and the early Hindu texts but also a result of innovation driven by regional availability of raw materials and
2759-459: The 1500 CE. It is seen in Hindu temples , and the most distinctive difference from north Indian styles is the use of a shorter and more pyramidal tower over the garbhagriha or sanctuary called a vimana , where the north has taller towers, usually bending inwards as they rise, called shikhara . However, for modern visitors to larger temples the dominating feature is the high Gopura or gatehouse at
Shilpa - Misplaced Pages Continue
2848-412: The 6th or 7th century, these evolved into high shikhara stone superstructures. However, there is inscriptional evidence such as the ancient Gangadhara inscription from about 424 CE, states Meister, that towering temples existed before this time and these were possibly made from more perishable material. These temples have not survived. Examples of early major North Indian temples that have survived after
2937-533: The 8th century and the Hoysala architecture popularised in the 13th century. The art of Western Chalukyas is sometimes called the " Gadag style" after the number of ornate temples they built in the Tungabhadra – Krishna River doab region of present-day Gadag district in Karnataka. Their temple building reached its maturity and culmination in the 12th century, with over a hundred temples built across
3026-1340: The Science of Shilpa (arts and crafts). It is an ancient umbrella term for numerous Hindu texts that describe arts, crafts, and their design rules, principles and standards. In the context of Hindu temple architecture and sculpture, Shilpa Shastras were manuals for sculpture and Hindu iconography , prescribing among other things, the proportions of a sculptured figure, composition, principles, meaning, as well as rules of architecture. Sixty-four techniques for such arts or crafts, sometimes called bāhya-kalā "external or practical arts", are traditionally enumerated, including carpentry, architecture, jewellery, farriery, acting, dancing, music, medicine, poetry etc., besides sixty-four abhyantara-kalā or "secret arts", which include mostly "erotic arts" such as kissing, embracing, etc. While Shilpa and Vastu Shastras are related, Shilpa Shastras deal with arts and crafts such as forming statues, icons, stone murals, painting, carpentry, pottery, jewellery, dying, textiles and others. Vastu Shastras deal with building architecture – building houses, forts, temples, apartments, village and town layout, etc. Shilpa (शिल्प) refers to any art or craft in ancient Indian texts, while Shastra means science. Together, Shilpa Shastra means
3115-508: The South-East Asia, except Malaysia and Indonesia where Islam displaced them both. Hindu temples in Southeast Asia developed their own distinct versions, mostly based on Indian architectural models, both North Indian and South Indian styles. However, the Southeast Asian temple architecture styles are different, and there is no known single temple in India that can be the source of the Southeast Asian temples. According to Michell, it
3204-517: The Vishwakarma school and the Maya (Devanagari: मय not to be pronounced as Maayaa) school. The Vishwakarma school is credited with treatises, terminology and innovations related to the Nagara style of architecture, while the Maya school with those related to the Dravida style. The style now called Vesara bridges and combines elements of the Nagara and the Dravida styles, it probably reflects one of
3293-433: The ancient Hindu and Buddhist kings of India respected by tradition. In some cases, the king established the laws of the guilds; in some cases, the king's treasurer had the final word and served as judge of various guilds in a kingdom. These guilds, in the 1st millennium BC, included all those who practised the art irrespective of the artist's caste or creed. The income of each guild came from fees paid by new members joining
3382-618: The ancient Sanskrit manuals for temple building were guidelines, and Hinduism permitted its artisans flexibility in expression and aesthetic independence. The Hindu text Sthapatya Veda describes many plans and styles of temples of which the following are found in other derivative literature: Chaturasra (square), Ashtasra (octagonal), Vritta (circular), Ayatasra (rectangular), Ayata Ashtasra (rectangular-octagonal fusion), Ayata Vritta (elliptical), Hasti Prishta (apsidal), Dvayasra Vrita (rectangular-circular fusion); in Tamil literature,
3471-847: The ancient book Vastu shastra , the majority of the existing structures are located in the Southern Indian states of Karnataka , Tamil Nadu , Kerala , Andhra Pradesh , Telangana , some parts of Maharashtra , Odisha and Sri Lanka . Various kingdoms and empires such as the Satavahanas , the Vakatakas of Vidarbha, the Cholas , the Chera , the Kakatiyas , the Reddis , the Pandyas ,
3560-486: The building of temples, and saw the loss of many existing ones. The south also witnessed Hindu-Muslim conflict that affected the temples, but the region was relatively less affected than the north. In late 14th century, the Hindu Vijayanagara Empire came to power and controlled much of South India. During this period, the distinctive very tall gopuram gatehouse, (actually a late development, from
3649-471: The compound, there may be additional mandapas or buildings that are either connected or separate from the larger temples. Hindu temple architecture reflects a synthesis of arts, the ideals of dharma , values and the way of life cherished under Hinduism. The temple is a place for Tirtha —pilgrimage. All the cosmic elements that create and celebrate life in Hindu pantheon, are present in a Hindu temple—from fire to water, from images of nature to deities, from
Shilpa - Misplaced Pages Continue
3738-442: The considerable variations and innovations in images crafted and temple designs. Later, much of this freedom was lost as iconography became more standardized and the demand for iconometry consistency increased. This "presumably reflected the influence of brahman theologians" states Michell, and the "increasing dependence of the artist upon the brahmins " on suitable forms of sacred images. The "individual pursuit of self-expression" in
3827-406: The construction work, with some texts accepting all castes to work as a shilpin . The Brahmins were the experts in art theory and guided the workmen when needed. They also performed consecration rituals of the superstructure and in the sanctum. In the earliest periods of Hindu art, from about the 4th century to about the 10th century, the artists had considerable freedom and this is evidenced in
3916-520: The context of making idols, and describe rules to achieve the best talmana (proportions), mudra (stance) and bhava (expression). Sanskrit texts such as Shilparatna and Manasara describe in detail the process and principles for art work with metals, particularly for alloys such as panchadhatu (five metals – zinc, tin, copper, silver and gold) and ashtadhatu (eight metal alloys – which adds iron, lead and mercury to panchadhatu). Madhuchista Vidhana (cire perdue or lost wax) casting process
4005-594: The deccan, more than half of them in present-day Karnataka. Apart from temples they are also well known for ornate stepped wells ( Pushkarni ) which served as ritual bathing places, many of which are well preserved in Lakkundi. Their stepped well designs were later incorporated by the Hoysalas and the Vijayanagara empire in the coming centuries. In the north, Muslim invasions from the 11th century onwards reduced
4094-407: The devotee. In some temples, these images or wall reliefs may be stories from Hindu Epics, in others they may be Vedic tales about right and wrong or virtues and vice, in some they may be idols of minor or regional deities. The pillars, walls and ceilings typically also have highly ornate carvings or images of the four just and necessary pursuits of life—kama, artha, dharma, and moksa. This walk around
4183-532: The diverse styles at Mahabalipuram , from the 7th and 8th centuries. According to Meister, the Mahabalipuram temples are "monolithic models of a variety of formal structures all of which already can be said to typify a developed "Dravida" (South Indian) order". They suggest a tradition and a knowledge base existed in South India by the time of the early Chalukya and Pallava era when these were built. In
4272-665: The earliest known Hindu temple structures, associated to the early Bhagavata tradition, a precursor of Vaishnavism . In Tamil Nadu , the earliest version of the Murugan Temple, Saluvankuppam , north-facing and in brick, appears to date from between the 3rd century BCE and 3rd century CE. In Besnagar, the temple structures have been found in conjonction with the Heliodorus pillar dedicated to Vāsudeva . The archaeologists found an ancient elliptical foundation, extensive floor and plinth produced from burnt bricks. Further,
4361-405: The edge of the compound; large temples have several, dwarfing the vimana; these are a much more recent development. There are numerous other distinct features such as the dvarapalakas – twin guardians at the main entrance and the inner sanctum of the temple and goshtams – deities carved in niches on the outer side walls of the garbhagriha . Mentioned as one of three styles of temple building in
4450-465: The explanation that such are the places where gods play, and thus the best site for Hindu temples. While major Hindu mandirs are recommended at sangams ( confluence of rivers), river banks, lakes and seashore, the Brhat Samhita and Puranas suggest temples may also be built where a natural source of water is not present. Here too, they recommend that a pond be built preferably in front or to
4539-938: The feminine to the masculine, from kama to artha , from the fleeting sounds and incense smells to Purusha—the eternal nothingness yet universality—is part of a Hindu temple architecture. The form and meanings of architectural elements in a Hindu temple are designed to function as the place where it is the link between man and the divine, to help his progress to spiritual knowledge and truth, his liberation it calls moksha . The architectural principles of Hindu temples in India are described in Shilpa Shastras and Vastu Sastras . The Hindu culture has encouraged aesthetic independence to its temple builders, and its architects have sometimes exercised considerable flexibility in creative expression by adopting other perfect geometries and mathematical principles in Mandir construction to express
SECTION 50
#17327834873684628-418: The floor plan, of the part of a Hindu temple around the sanctum or shrine follows a geometrical design called vastu-purusha-mandala . The name is a composite Sanskrit word with three of the most important components of the plan. Mandala means circle, Purusha is universal essence at the core of Hindu tradition, while Vastu means the dwelling structure. Vastupurushamandala is a yantra . The design lays out
4717-589: The former is available in Sanskrit while the only surviving copies of the latter are in Tibetan (both were originally written on birch bark, and have been translated into English and German). These Sanskrit treatises discuss the following aspects of a painting: measurement, proportions, perspective of the viewer, mudra, emotions, and rasa (meaning). Such an approach to Indian paintings, states Isabella Nardi, make Shilpa Shastra not only canonical textual sources but also
4806-410: The foundations for all the major components of a Hindu temple – garbhagriha (sanctum), pradakshinapatha (circumambulation passage), antarala (antechamber next to sanctum) and mandapa (gathering hall) – were found. These sections had a thick support base for their walls. These core temple remains cover an area of 30 x 30 m. The sections had post-holes, which likely contained the wooden pillars for
4895-589: The gallery that encircles the sanctum sanctorum. A sculpture of Vishnu sitting atop a large cobra is at Hutchimali Temple. The Ravalphadi cave temple celebrates the many forms of Shiva. Other temples include the Konthi temple complex and the Meguti Jain temple. Pattadakal is a World Heritage Site , where one finds the Virupaksha temple; it is the biggest temple, having carved scenes from the great epics of
4984-443: The given name Silpa [ edit ] Silpa Bhirasri (1892–1962), Italian-Thai sculptor Notable people with the surname Silpa [ edit ] Mitch Silpa (born 1973), American writer, actor and director [REDACTED] Name list This page or section lists people that share the same given name or the same family name . If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change that link to point directly to
5073-418: The guild, from fines on those violating the code of conduct established by the guild, and levies on tools used for that art. The guilds also performed charity and gifted collective works of art by their members to temples and other social works. During festivals and social celebrations, each guild would contribute their own performance and pavilions with flags and emblems. Creative work and artists were granted
5162-491: The head of a town street. In practice most temples are built as part of a village or town. Some sites such as the capitals of kingdoms and those considered particularly favourable in terms of sacred geography had numerous temples. Many ancient capitals vanished and the surviving temples are now found in a rural landscape; often these are the best-preserved examples of older styles. Aihole , Badami , Pattadakal and Gangaikonda Cholapuram are examples. The design, especially
5251-557: The house) (Purusa Space), signifying Universal Principle present in everything and everyone. The spire of a Hindu temple, called Shikhara in north India and Vimana in south India, is perfectly aligned above the Brahma pada(s). Beneath the mandala's central square(s) is the space for the formless shapeless all pervasive all connecting Universal Spirit, the Purusha. This space is sometimes referred to as garbha-griya (literally womb house) –
5340-401: The human personality. The meaning of Shilpa, according to Stella Kramrisch , is complex. She writes that it consists of "art, skill, craft, labor, ingenuity, rite and ritual, form and creation." The range of crafts encompassed by the term Shilpa extends to every aspect of culture, includes sculptor, the potter, the perfumer, the wheelwright, the painter, the weaver, the architect, the dancer,
5429-573: The intended article. Retrieved from " https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Shilpa&oldid=1202772938 " Categories : Given names Surnames Hindu given names Indian feminine given names Feminine given names Hidden categories: Articles containing undetermined-language text Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata All set index articles Shilpa Shastras Traditional Shilpa Shastras ( Sanskrit : शिल्प शास्त्र śilpa śāstra ) literally means
SECTION 60
#17327834873685518-668: The islands and the mainland Southeast Asia is the Võ Cạnh inscription of Champa dated to 2nd or 3rd century CE in Vietnam or in Cambodia between the 4th and 5th century CE. Prior to the 14th-century local versions of Hindu temples were built in Myanmar, Malaysia, Indonesia, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos and Vietnam. These developed several national traditions, and often mixed Hinduism and Buddhism . Theravada Buddhism prevailed in many parts of
5607-635: The knowledge of wood forms and practices the art of carpentry. One of the earliest mentions of carpentry arts is in Book 9, Chapter 112 of Rig Veda. Carpentry was also an essential Shilpa Shastra during the construction of a Hindu temple . The Vedas, particularly Atharva veda and Sthapatya veda, describe many kinds of arts and crafts in their discussion of Shilpa Shastra and Yantra Sarvasva. The Rig veda, states Ravi, mentions equipment used in casting, such as dhamatri ( cupola ), gharma aranmaya ( crucible ) and bhastri ( blower ). These discussions are in
5696-521: The layout of Hindu temples is mirroring and repeating fractal-like design structure, each unique yet also repeating the central common principle, one which Susan Lewandowski refers to as “an organism of repeating cells”. Predominant number of Hindu temples exhibit the perfect square grid principle. However, there are some exceptions. For example, the Teli ka Mandir in Gwalior , built in the 8th century CE
5785-480: The left of the temple with water gardens. If water is neither present naturally nor by design, water is symbolically present at the consecration of temple or the deity. Temples may also be built, suggests Visnudharmottara in Part III of Chapter 93, inside caves and carved stones, on hill tops affording peaceful views, mountain slopes overlooking beautiful valleys, inside forests and hermitages, next to gardens, or at
5874-563: The local climate. Some materials of construction were imported from distant regions, but much of the temples were built from readily available materials. In some regions, such as in South Karnataka, the local availability of soft stone led to Hoysala architects to innovate architectural styles that are difficult with hard crystalline rocks. In other places, artists used to cut granite or other stones to build temples and create sculptures. Rock faces allowed artists to carve cave temples or
5963-467: The main form of Hindu architecture has many different styles, though the basic nature of the Hindu temple remains the same, with the essential feature an inner sanctum, the garbha griha or womb-chamber, where the primary Murti or the image of a deity is housed in a simple bare cell. For rituals and prayers, this chamber frequently has an open space that can be moved in a clockwise direction. There are frequently additional buildings and structures in
6052-836: The musician, the arts of love, and others. Ancient Indian texts assert that the number of the arts is unlimited, they deploy sixty-four kala (कला, techniques) and thirty-two vidyas (विद्या, fields of knowledge). Shilpa is discussed in Agamas , Puranas and Vastu Shastra where it is linked to the mythology of Vishvakarma . Shilpa Shastras include chapters on paintings, both miniature and large. For example, Narada Shilpa Shastra dedicates chapters 66 and 71 to painting, while Saraswati Shilpa Shastra describes various types of chitra (full painting), ardhachitra (sketch work), chitrabhasa (communication through painting), varna samskara (preparation of colors). Other ancient Shilpa Shastra on painting include Vishnudharmottara Purana and Chitralakshana,
6141-573: The natural rock, and monolithic shrines where the natural rock is entirely cut away and carved to give an external roof. Early temples were mostly dedicated to Shiva. The Kailasanatha temple also called Rajasimha Pallaveswaram in Kanchipuram built by Narasimhavarman II also known as Rajasimha is a fine example of the Pallava style temple. Western Chalukya architecture linked between the Badami Chalukya Architecture of
6230-458: The next inner concentric layer is Manusha padas signifying human life; while Devika padas signify aspects of Devas and good. The Manusha padas typically houses the ambulatory. The devotees, as they walk around in clockwise fashion through this ambulatory to complete Parikrama (or Pradakshina), walk between good on inner side and evil on the outer side. In smaller temples, the Paisachika pada
6319-688: The other extinct schools. Some scholars have questioned the relevance of these texts, whether the artists relied on śilpa śāstras theory and Sanskrit construction manuals probably written by Brahmins, and did these treatises precede or follow the big temples and ancient sculptures therein. Other scholars question whether big temples and complex symmetric architecture or sculpture with consistent themes and common iconography across distant sites, over many centuries, could have been built by artists and architects without adequate theory, shared terminology and tools, and if so how. According to Adam Hardy – an architecture historian and professor of Asian Architecture,
6408-504: The period of construction, which in the case of large projects might be several years. The work was led by a chief architect ( sutradhara ). The construction superintendent was equal in his authority. Other important members were stonemason chief and the chief image-maker who collaborated to complete a temple. The sculptors were called shilpins . Women participated in temple building, but in lighter work such as polishing stones and clearing. Hindu texts are inconsistent about which caste did
6497-527: The practice of carpenters offering prayers and seeking forgiveness of a tree before cutting it for wood. The axe used to cut the tree would be rubbed with honey and butter to minimise the hurt to the tree, which was considered a living being. Craft was seen as application of essence of Purusha (Universal Principles) to parts of nature so as to transform it into a work of art. Some known Shilpa Shastras-related manuscripts include: Hindu temple architecture Traditional Hindu temple architecture as
6586-491: The process of inner realization within the devotee. The specific process is left to the devotee's school of belief. The primary deity of different Hindu temples varies to reflect this spiritual spectrum. The appropriate site for a Mandir, suggest ancient Sanskrit texts, is near water and gardens, where lotus and flowers bloom, where swans, ducks and other birds are heard, where animals rest without fear of injury or harm. These harmonious places were recommended in these texts with
6675-531: The pursuit of moksha (release, self-knowledge). At the centre of the temple, typically below and sometimes above or next to the deity, is mere hollow space with no decoration, symbolically representing Purusa , the Supreme Principle, the sacred Universal, one without form, which is present everywhere, connects everything, and is the essence of everyone. A Hindu temple is meant to encourage reflection, facilitate purification of one's mind, and trigger
6764-484: The rainy climate and the materials of construction available in Bengal , Kerala, Java and Bali Indonesia have influenced the evolutions of styles and structures in these regions. At other sites such as Ellora and Pattadakal , adjacent temples may have features drawing from different traditions, as well as features in a common style local to that region and period. In modern era literature, many styles have been named after
6853-505: The region between the Krishna and Tungabhadra rivers that is contemporary north Karnataka. According to some art historians, the roots of Vesara style can be traced to the Chalukyas of Badami (500-753AD) whose Early Chalukya or Badami Chalukya architecture built temples in a style that mixed some features of the nagara and the dravida styles, for example using both the northern shikhara and southern vimana type of superstructure over
6942-546: The royal dynasties in whose territories they were built. The architecture of the rock-cut temples , particularly the rathas , became a model for south Indian temples. Architectural features, particularly the sculptures, were widely adopted in South Indian , Cambodian , Annamese and Javanese temples. Descendants of the sculptors of the shrines are artisans in contemporary Mahabalipuram. The Badami Chalukya Architecture style originated by 5th century in Aihole and
7031-416: The same time being , the universal whole" like an "organism of repeating cells". The pilgrim is welcomed through mathematically structured spaces, a network of art, pillars with carvings and statues that display and celebrate the four important and necessary principles of human life—the pursuit of artha (prosperity, wealth), the pursuit of kama (desire), the pursuit of dharma (virtues, ethical life) and
7120-402: The sanctions of a sacrament in ancient Indian culture, states Stella Kramrisch. An artist expresses the spiritual and holiness in his or her art. This belief continues to manifest itself in modern India in the form of rituals, where in an autumn festival (Dashahra), craftsmen in parts of India worship their tools with incense, flowers and unhusked rice. Brhat Samhita at verses 57.10-11 describes
7209-507: The sanctum in different temples of similar date, as at Pattadakal . This style was further refined by the Rashtrakutas of Manyakheta (750-983AD) in sites such as Ellora . Though there is clearly a good deal of continuity with the Badami or Early Chalukya style, other writers only date the start of Vesara to the later Western Chalukyas of Kalyani (983-1195 AD), in sites such as Lakkundi , Dambal , Itagi , and Gadag , and continued by
7298-406: The science of art and crafts. The ancient Sanskrit texts use the term Shilpin (शिल्पिन्, male artist) and Shilpini (शिल्पिनी, female artist) for artists and crafts person, while Shilpani refers to works of arts of man. Shilpani , works of art made by man, are imitations of divine forms; shilpa artisans, in tune with divine rhythms, produce visual interpretations in spite of the limitations of
7387-780: The subcontinent. Additionally, unlike the Indian temples, the sacred architecture in Southeast Asia associated the ruler ( devaraja ) with the divine, with the temple serving as a memorial to the king as much as being house of gods. Notable examples of Southeast Asian Hindu temple architecture are the Shivaist Prambanan Trimurti temple compound in Java , Indonesia (9th century), and the Vishnuite Angkor Wat in Cambodia (12th century). A Hindu temple
7476-527: The temple superstructure above. In the soil were iron nails that likely held together the wooden pillars. The superstructure of the temple was likely made of wood, mud and other perishable materials. The ancient temple complex discovered in Nagari (Chittorgarh, Rajasthan) – about 500 kilometers to the west of Vidisha , has a sub-surface structure nearly identical to that of the Besnagar temple. The structure
7565-712: The truth "must lie somewhere in between". According to George Michell – an art historian and professor specializing in Hindu Architecture, the theory and the creative field practice likely co-evolved, and the construction workers and artists building complex temples likely consulted the theoreticians when they needed to. The ancient Hindu texts on architecture such as Brihatsamhita and others, states Michell, classify temples into five orders based on their typological features: Nagara , Dravida , Vesara , ellipse and rectangle. The plan described for each include square, octagonal and apsidal. Their horizontal plan regulates
7654-412: The vertical form. Each temple architecture in turn has developed its own vocabulary, with terms that overlap but do not necessarily mean exactly the same thing in another style and may apply to a different part of the temple. Following a general historical division, the early Hindu temples, up to the 7th or 8th century, are often called classical or ancient temples, while those after the classical period to
7743-423: The vicinity of this chamber, with the largest ones covering several acres. On the exterior, the garbhagriha is crowned by a tower-like shikhara , also called the vimana in the south. The shrine building often includes an circumambulatory passage for parikrama , a mandapa congregation hall, and sometimes an antarala antechamber and porch between garbhagriha and mandapa. In addition to other small temples in
7832-550: Was perfected in Pattadakal and Badami . Between 500 and 757 CE, Badami Chalukyas built Hindu temples out of sandstone cut into enormous blocks from the outcrops in the chains of the Kaladgi hills. In Aihole , known as the "Cradle of Indian architecture ," there are over 150 temples scattered around the village. The Lad Khan Temple is the oldest. The Durga Temple is notable for its semi-circular apse, elevated plinth and
7921-417: Was typically transmitted within families from one generation to the next, and this knowledge was jealously guarded. The guilds were like a corporate body that set rules of work and standard wages. These guilds over time became wealthy, and themselves made charitable donations as evidenced by inscriptions. The guilds covered almost every aspect of life in the camps around the site where the workmen lived during
#367632