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57-549: The Codex Sinaiticus ( Shelfmark : London, British Library , Add MS 43725), designated by siglum א ‎ [Aleph] or 01 (in the Gregory-Aland numbering of New Testament manuscripts), δ 2 (in the von Soden numbering of New Testament manuscripts), also called Sinai Bible , is a fourth-century Christian manuscript of a Greek Bible, containing the majority of the Greek Old Testament , including

114-1094: A few ligatures are used, along with the paragraphos: initial letter into margin (extent of this varies considerably). A plain iota is replaced by the epsilon-iota diphthong almost regularly (commonly though imprecisely known as itacism ), e.g. ΔΑΥΕΙΔ instead of ΔΑΥΙΔ , ΠΕΙΛΑΤΟΣ instead of ΠΙΛΑΤΟΣ , ΦΑΡΕΙΣΑΙΟΙ instead of ΦΑΡΙΣΑΙΟΙ , etc. Nomina sacra with overlines are employed throughout. Some words usually abbreviated in other manuscripts (such as πατηρ and δαυειδ ), are written in both full and abbreviated forms. The following nomina sacra are written in abbreviated forms (nominative forms shown): ΘΣ ( θεος / god ) ΚΣ ( κυριος / lord ) ΙΣ ( Ιησους / Jesus ) ΧΣ ( χριστος / Christ ) ΠΝΑ ( πνευμα / spirit ) ΠΝΙΚΟΣ ( πνευματικος / spiritual ) ΥΣ ( υιος / son ) ΑΝΟΣ ( ανθρωπος / man ) ΟΥΟΣ ( ουρανος / heaven ) ΔΑΔ ( Δαυιδ / David ) ΙΛΗΜ ( Ιερουσαλημ / Jerusalem ) ΙΣΡΛ ( Ισραηλ / Israel ) ΜΗΡ ( μητηρ / mother ) ΠΗΡ ( πατηρ / father ) ΣΩΡ ( σωτηρ / saviour ). The portion of

171-604: A final, medial and initial forms, which is comparable to initial, or capital, form for the Latin alphabet since the Renaissance . Six letters in Arabic have only one final form, and whenever they occur in a word, there is some space in it that was originally as wide as the space between words. There was also no hyphenation either. In all early manuscripts, words were finished on the next line or, in many Quranic manuscripts, even on

228-463: A fore-edge shelfmark system for the Town Library of Ipswich in 1651. A diagonal line was drawn across the fore-edge of the books with an additional pressmark to indicate to which shelf of which press the book belonged. Shelfmarking declined in the 19th century with the rise of classification schemes like Dewey Decimal Classification . Scriptio continua Although scriptio continua

285-610: A lack of punctuation and/or word breaks. One Chinese joke concerns a contract between a landlord and a poor scholar, which was written without punctuation and thus was interpreted in two different ways: Japanese implements extensive use of Chinese characters —called kanji in Japanese. However, due to the radical differences between the Chinese and Japanese languages, writing Japanese exclusively in kanji would make it extremely difficult to read. This can be seen in texts that predate

342-421: A long sentence will not break into new lines. Some computer input methods have put zero-width space instead for word break, which would then break the long sentences into multiple lanes, but the drawback of that method is it will not render the writing correctly. Before typewriter, computer and smartphones changed the way of writing, Arabic was written continuously. That is easy because 22 letters in Arabic have

399-563: A much older common source, "the date of which cannot be later than the early part of the second century, and may well be yet earlier". Example of differences between Sinaiticus and Vaticanus in Matt 1:18–19 (one transposition difference; two spelling differences; one word substitution difference): Biblical scholar B. H. Streeter remarked there was a great agreement between the codex and the Vulgate of Jerome . According to him, Origen brought

456-457: A shelfmark or pressmark may be used as a call number, but in other cases the call number contains no information about the book's physical location. In certain American institutions, shelfmark and call number are combined to create a long code containing information on location, classification, size, binding, author and date. Shelfmarks and pressmarks were usually written, inscribed or stamped on

513-548: A table of characters, whereas Chartable could ask or answer the question, "Can (something) be charted?" Chinese does not encounter the problem of incorporating spaces into text because, unlike most writing systems , Chinese characters represent morphemes and not phonemes. Chinese is therefore readable without spaces. Western punctuation was first used in China in the 20th century as a result of interaction with Western culture. However, sentences can still be ambiguous due to

570-422: Is a mark in a book or manuscript that denotes the cupboard or bookcase where it is kept as well as the shelf and possibly even its location on the shelf. The closely related term pressmark (from press , meaning cupboard) denotes only the cupboard or case. It is distinct from a call number , which is the code under which a book or manuscript is registered and which is used to identify it when ordering it. Sometimes

627-519: Is angry with his brother without a cause shall be in danger of the judgement ". In John 1:1–8:38, Codex Sinaiticus differs from Vaticanus (B) and all other Alexandrian manuscripts. It is in closer agreement with Codex Bezae (D) in support of the Western text-type . For example, in John 1:4 Sinaiticus and Codex Bezae are the only Greek manuscripts with textual variant ἐν αὐτῷ ζωὴ ἐστίν ( in him

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684-642: Is evidenced in most Classic Greek and Classic Latin manuscripts, different writing styles are depicted in documents that date back even further. Classical Latin often used the interpunct , especially in monuments and inscriptions. The earliest texts in Classical Greek that used the Greek alphabet, as opposed to Linear B , were formatted in a constant string of capital letters from right to left. Later, that evolved to boustrophedon , which included lines written in alternating directions. The Latin language and

741-676: Is known of the manuscript's early history. According to Hort, it was written in the West, probably in Rome, as suggested by the fact that the chapter division in the Acts of the Apostles common to Sinaiticus and Vaticanus occurs in no other Greek manuscript, but is found in several manuscripts of the Latin Vulgate . Robinson countered this argument, suggesting that this system of chapter divisions

798-407: Is life ) instead of ἐν αὐτῷ ζωὴ ᾓν ( in him was life ). This variant is supported by Vetus Latina and some Sahidic manuscripts. This portion has a large number of corrections. There are a number of differences between Sinaiticus and Vaticanus; Textual critic Herman C. Hoskier enumerated 3036 differences: According to textual critic Fenton Hort , Sinaiticus and Vaticanus were derived from

855-447: Is well known for lacking punctuation for many centuries. Modern versions of the language gradually amended those features. The entire Swedish Rök runestone is written in scriptio continua , which poses problems for scholars attempting to translate it. One example is a phrase repeated several times, sakumukmini . Interpretations proposed include sagum Ygg minni 'let us say the memory to Yggr ', sagum mógminni 'let us say

912-541: The Alexandrian text-type that was used in this codex to Caesarea , and it was subsequently employed by Jerome for his Latin revision. Between the 4th and 12th centuries, seven or more correctors worked on this codex, making it one of the most corrected manuscripts in existence. During his investigation in Petersburg, Tischendorf enumerated 14,800 corrections in the portion which was only held in Petersburg (2/3 of

969-662: The Bible , and contains the oldest complete copy of the New Testament . It is a historical treasure, and using the study of comparative writing styles ( palaeography ), it has been dated to the mid-fourth century. Biblical scholarship considers Codex Sinaiticus to be one of the most important Greek texts of the New Testament, along with Codex Vaticanus . Until German Biblical scholar (and manuscript hunter) Constantin von Tischendorf 's discovery of Codex Sinaiticus in 1844,

1026-672: The deuterocanonical books , and the Greek New Testament , with both the Epistle of Barnabas and the Shepherd of Hermas included. It is written in uncial letters on parchment . It is one of the four great uncial codices (these being manuscripts which originally contained the whole of both the Old and New Testaments). Along with Codex Alexandrinus and Codex Vaticanus , it is one of the earliest and most complete manuscripts of

1083-412: The pastedowns . When a book was moved, the old shelfmark was usually crossed out and a new one added. Old shelfmarks can sometimes provide valuable information about a manuscript's provenance . Shelfmarks originated in the early Middle Ages , usually as combinations of numbers and letters, probably indicating the cupboard and shelf. Letters later came to be assigned to specific batch acquisitions. In

1140-513: The "space" character when its use would be invalid and their use would not be. As another example, so-called camel case —in which the first letter of each word is capitalized—has become part of the culture of many computer programming languages . In this context, names of variables and subroutines as well as other identifiers are rendered easier to read, as in MaxDataRate . Camel case can also eliminate ambiguity: CharTable might name

1197-511: The Greek text of Codex Vaticanus was unrivalled. Since its discovery, study of Codex Sinaiticus has proven to be useful to scholars for critical studies of the biblical text. Codex Sinaiticus came to the attention of scholars in the 19th century at Saint Catherine's Monastery in the Sinai Peninsula , with further material discovered in the 20th and 21st centuries. Although parts of the codex are scattered across four libraries around

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1254-480: The Middle Ages (this being eight parchment pages laid on top of each other, and folded in half to make a full block (also known as a folio ); several of these were then stitched together to create a book). The folios were made primarily from calf skins, secondarily from sheep skins. Tischendorf thought the parchment had been made from antelope skins, but modern microscopic examination has shown otherwise. Most of

1311-645: The New Testament is arranged in the following order: The codex includes two other books as part of the New Testament: For most of the New Testament, Codex Sinaiticus is in general agreement with Codex Vaticanus (B) and Codex Ephraemi Rescriptus (C) , attesting the Alexandrian text-type . A notable example of an agreement between the text in Sinaiticus and Vaticanus is they both omit the word εικη ('without cause', 'without reason', 'in vain') from Matthew 5:22 : " But I say unto you, that whosoever

1368-539: The Old Testament are missing, it is assumed the codex originally contained the whole of both Testaments. About half of the Greek Old Testament (or Septuagint ) survived, along with a complete New Testament , the entire Deuterocanonical books , the Epistle of Barnabas and portions of The Shepherd of Hermas . The text of the Old Testament contains the following passages in order: The text of

1425-498: The codex held by the British Library consists of 346½ folios , 694 pages (38.1 cm x 34.5 cm), constituting over half of the original work. Of these folios, 199 belong to the Old Testament, including the apocrypha ( deuterocanonical ), and 147½ belong to the New Testament, along with two other books, the Epistle of Barnabas and part of The Shepherd of Hermas . The apocryphal and deuterocanonical books present in

1482-517: The codex was not likely to be much later than about 360. More recent research suggests that these cursive notes could be as late as the early fifth century. Tischendorf theorized that Codex Sinaiticus was one of the fifty copies of the Bible commissioned from Eusebius by Roman emperor Constantine after his conversion to Christianity ( De vita Constantini , IV, 37). This hypothesis was supported by Pierre Batiffol . Gregory and Skeat believed that it

1539-730: The codex). According to textual critic David C. Parker , the full codex has about 23,000 corrections. In addition to these corrections some letters were marked by dots as doubtful (e.g. ṪḢ). The New Testament portion lacks the following passages: Some passages/phrases were excluded by the correctors: Matthew 8:13 (see Luke 7:10 ) Matthew 10:12 (see Luke 10:5 ) Matthew 27:49 (see John 19:34 ) Matthew 7:22 Matthew 8:12 Matthew 13:54 Acts 8:5 Matthew 16:12 Luke 1:26 Luke 2:37 John 1:28 John 1:34 John 2:3 John 6:10 Acts 11:20 Acts 14:9 Hebrews 2:4 1 Peter 5:13 2 Timothy 4:10 Mark 10:19 Mark 13:33 Luke 8:48 1 John 5:6 Little

1596-399: The first being kanji and the latter two being kana systems, the cursive hiragana and the angular katakana . While spaces are not normally used in writing, boundaries between words are often quickly perceived by Japanese speakers since kana are usually visually distinct from kanji. Japanese speakers also know that certain words, morphemes, and parts of speech are typically written using one of

1653-449: The folk-memory', and sagum ungmenni 'let us say to the group of young men'. A form of scriptio continua has become common in internet e-mail addresses and domain names where, because the "space" character is invalid, the address for a website for "Example Fake Website" is written as examplefakewebsite.com – without spaces between the separate words. However, the "underscore" or "dash" characters are often used as stand-ins for

1710-480: The gutters between the columns were removed, the text block would mirror the page's proportions. Typographer Robert Bringhurst referred to the codex as a "subtle piece of craftsmanship". The cost of the material, copying time required for the scribes, and binding, is estimated to have equalled the lifetime wages of one individual at the time. Throughout the New Testament portion, the words are written in scriptio continua (words without any spaces in between them) in

1767-430: The hand-writing style that came to be called "biblical uncial" or "biblical majuscule". The parchment was ruled with a sharp point to prepare for writing lines. The letters are written along these lines, with neither breathings nor polytonic accents (markings utilised to indicate changes of pitch or emphasis). A variety of types of punctuation are used: high and middle points; colon; diaeresis on initial iota and upsilon;

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1824-415: The modern kana system, in which Japanese was written entirely in kanji and man'yōgana , the latter of which are written solely to indicate a word's pronunciation as opposed to its meaning. For that reason, different syllabary systems called kana were developed to differentiate phonetic graphemes from ideographic ones. Modern Japanese is typically written using three different types of graphemes,

1881-576: The modern period, university libraries often organized their collections by subject and indicated the faculty in the shelfmark. As libraries grew larger, alphanumeric shelfmarks were augmented with Greek letters and the symbols of the zodiac . By the seventeenth century the Cotton library incorporates the names of Roman emperors in it shelfmarks, based on the location of imperial busts in Robert Cotton 's original library. Cave Beck introduced

1938-553: The next page. Before the 1970's, Gurbani and other Sikh scriptures were written in the traditional method of writing the Gurmukhi script known as larivār where there were no spacing between words in the texts (interpuncts in the form of a dot were used by some to differentiate between words, such as by Guru Arjan ). This is opposed to the comparatively more recent method of writing in Gurmukhi known as pad ched , which breaks

1995-543: The older, slower, and more dramatic performance-based reading, and word dividers and punctuation became more beneficial to text. Though paleographers disagree about the chronological decline of scriptio continua throughout the world, it is generally accepted that the addition of spaces first appeared in Irish and Anglo-Saxon Bibles and Gospels from the seventh and eighth centuries. Subsequently, an increasing number of European texts adopted conventional spacing, and within

2052-547: The poetic books of the Old Testament. These are written in a different format from the rest of the manuscript – they appear in two columns (the rest of books is in four columns), written stichometrically. Tischendorf probably interpreted the different formatting as indicating the existence of another scribe. The three remaining scribes are still identified by the letters Tischendorf gave them: A, B, and D. There were in fact more correctors, with at least seven (a, b, c, ca, cb, cc, e). Modern analysis identifies three scribes: Scribe B

2109-413: The quires (or signatures) contain four sheets, save two containing five. It is estimated that the hides of about 360 animals were employed for making the folios of this codex. Each line of the text has some twelve to fourteen Greek uncial letters, arranged in four columns, 48 lines per column, with carefully chosen line breaks and slightly ragged right edges. When opened, the eight columns thus presented to

2166-437: The reader have much the same appearance as the succession of columns in a papyrus roll. The poetical books of the Old Testament are written stichometrically (writing each new poetic phrase on a new line), in only two columns per page. The codex has almost 4,000,000 uncial letters. Each rectangular page has the proportions 1.1 to 1, while the block of text has the reciprocal proportions, 0.91 (the same proportions, rotated 90°). If

2223-406: The reader to distinguish elements of the script without a visual aid, but it also presented the reader with more freedom to interpret the text. The reader had the liberty to insert pauses and dictate tone, which made the act of reading a significantly more subjective activity than it is today. However, the lack of spacing also led to some ambiguity because a minor discrepancy in word parsing could give

2280-553: The related Italic languages first came to be written using alphabetic scripts adapted from the Etruscan alphabet (itself ultimately derived from the Greek alphabet). Initially, Latin texts commonly marked word divisions by points, but later on the Romans came to follow the Greek practice of scriptio continua . Before and after the advent of the codex , Latin and Greek script was written on scrolls by slave scribes. The role of

2337-422: The scribes was to simply record everything they heard to create documentation. Because speech is continuous, there was no need to add spaces. Typically, the reader of the text was a trained performer, who would have already memorised the content and breaks of the script. During the reading performances, the scroll acted as a cue sheet and therefore did not require in-depth reading. The lack of word parsing forced

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2394-599: The substitution of ΕΙ for Ι, and Ι for ΕΙ in medial positions, both equally common. Otherwise substitution of Ι for initial ΕΙ is unknown, and final ΕΙ is only replaced in the word ΙΣΧΥΕΙ. The confusion of Ε and ΑΙ is very rare. In the Book of Psalms, this scribe has ΔΑΥΕΙΔ instead of ΔΑΥΙΔ 35 times, while scribe A normally uses an abbreviated form ΔΑΔ . Scribe A made the most phonetic errors: confusion of Ε and ΑΙ occurs in all contexts. Milne and Skeat characterised scribe B as "careless and illiterate". Shelfmark A shelfmark

2451-754: The surviving part of the Septuagint are 2 Esdras , Tobit , Judith , 1 and 4 Maccabees , Wisdom , and Sirach . The books of the New Testament are arranged in this order: the four Gospels , the epistles of Paul ( Hebrews follows 2 Thess. ), the Acts of the Apostles , the General Epistles , and the Book of Revelation . The fact that some parts of the codex are preserved in good condition while others are in very poor condition suggests they were separated and stored in several places. While large portions of

2508-439: The text a different meaning. For example, a phrase written in scriptio continua as collectamexiliopubem may be interpreted as collectam ex Ilio pubem , meaning 'a people gathered from Troy', or collectam exilio pubem , 'a people gathered for exile'. Thus, readers had to be much more cognisant of the context to which the text referred. Over time, the current system of rapid silent reading for information replaced

2565-410: The thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, all European texts were written with word separation. When word separation became the standard system, it was seen as a simplification of Roman culture because it undermined the metric and rhythmic fluency generated through scriptio continua . In contrast, paleographers today identify the extinction of scriptio continua as a critical factor in augmenting

2622-601: The three systems. Kanji is typically used for words of Japanese and Chinese origin as well as content words (e.g. nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs). Hiragana is typically used for native Japanese words, as well as commonly known words, phrases, and grammatical particles , as well as inflections of content words like verbs, adjectives, and adverbs. Katakana is typically used for loanwords from languages other than Chinese, onomatopoeia , and emphasized words. Like Chinese, Japanese lacked any sort of punctuation until interaction with Western civilizations became more common. Punctuation

2679-579: The water there are fish; in the paddy fields there is rice.") can also be written as "ใน น้ำ มี ปลา ใน นา มี ข้าว". This example shows the first line of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in Javanese script , and a case of the text being divided, as in some modern writing, by spaces and dash signs, which look different. Because of the absence of space, in computer typography, the line-break have to be inserted manually, otherwise

2736-805: The widespread absorption of knowledge in the pre-Modern Era. By saving the reader the taxing process of interpreting pauses and breaks, the inclusion of spaces enables the brain to comprehend written text more rapidly. Furthermore, the brain has a greater capacity to profoundly synthesize text and commit a greater portion of information to memory. Scriptio continua is still in use in Thai script , other Southeast Asian abugidas : ( Burmese , Lao , Khmer , Javanese , Balinese , Sundanese script ), and in languages that use Chinese characters ( Chinese and Japanese ). However, modern vernacular Chinese differentiates itself from ancient scriptio continua through its use of punctuation, although this method of separation

2793-403: The words by inserting spacing between them. Before the invention of delimiters and other punctuation to set off groups of three digits in numbers above four digits, large numbers (e.g. numbers greater than 999) were written continuously. As of now, only numbers with fewer than four digits are written with no delimiter or other punctuation. This manner is somewhat similar how to separate a word in

2850-410: The work (whom he named A, B, C and D), and five correctors amended portions (whom he designated a, b, c, d and e). He posited one of the correctors was contemporaneous with the original scribes, and the others worked during the sixth and seventh centuries. After Milne and Skeat's reinvestigation, it is now agreed Tischendorf was incorrect, as scribe C never existed. According to Tischendorf, scribe C wrote

2907-525: The world, most of the manuscript is held today in the British Library in London, where it is on public display. The manuscript is a codex (the forerunner to the modern book) made from vellum parchment, originally in double sheets, which may have measured about 40 by 70 cm. The whole codex consists of quires of eight leaves (with a few exceptions), a format which came to be popular throughout

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2964-440: Was a poor speller, and scribe A was not much better; the best scribe was D. Metzger states: "scribe A had made some unusually serious mistakes". Scribes A and B used nomina sacra in contracted forms most often (ΠΝΕΥΜΑ contracted in all occurrences, ΚΥΡΙΟΣ contracted except in 2 occurrences), whereas scribe D mostly used the uncontracted forms. Scribe D distinguished between sacral and nonsacral uses of ΚΥΡΙΟΣ. His spelling errors are

3021-688: Was adopted during the Meiji period . Modern Thai script, which was said to have been created by King Ram Khamhaeng in 1283, does not contain any spaces between words. Spaces indicate only the clear endings of clauses or sentences. Below is a sample sentence of Thai written first without spaces between words (with Thai romanization in parentheses), second in Thai with spaces between words (also with Thai romanization in parentheses), and then finally translated into English. For example, "ในน้ำมีปลา ในนามีข้าว" (pronounced " nai nam mi phla nai na mi khao ", meaning "In

3078-464: Was already in production when Constantine placed his order, but had to be suspended in order to accommodate different page dimensions. Frederic G. Kenyon argued: "There is not the least sign of either of them ever having been at Constantinople. The fact that Sinaiticus was collated with the manuscript of Pamphilus so late as the sixth century seems to show that it was not originally written at Caesarea". Tischendorf believed four separate scribes copied

3135-787: Was borrowed from the West only in the 19th and 20th centuries. Before this, the only forms of punctuation found in Chinese writings were marks to denote quotes, proper nouns, and emphasis. Modern Tibetic languages also employ a form of scriptio continua ; while they punctuate syllables, they do not use spacing between units of meaning. Latin text in scriptio continua with typical capital letters, taken from Cicero 's De finibus bonorum et malorum : Which in modern punctuation is: With ancient Latin punctuation is: NEQVE·PORRO·QVISQVAM·EST·QVI·DOLOREM·IPSVM·QVIA·DOLOR·SIT·AMET·CONSECTETVR·ADIPISCI·VELIT Greek text in scriptio continua with typical capital letters, taken from Hesiod 's Theogony : Which in modern punctuation is: Hebrew text

3192-618: Was introduced into the Vulgate by Jerome himself, as a result of his studies at Caesarea . According to Kenyon the forms of the letters are Egyptian and they were found in Egyptian papyri of earlier date. Gardthausen , Ropes and Jellicoe thought it was written in Egypt . Biblical scholar J. Rendel Harris believed that the manuscript came from the library of Pamphilus at Caesarea Maritima. Streeter , Skeat, and Milne also believed that it

3249-530: Was produced in Caesarea. The codex can be dated with a reasonable degree of confidence between the early fourth century and the early fifth century. It could not have been written before about 325 because it contains the Eusebian Canons , which is a terminus post quem . The terminus ante quem is less certain. Milne and Skeat relied on small cursive notes to assert that the date of the production of

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