The pelvis ( pl. : pelves or pelvises ) is the lower part of an anatomical trunk , between the abdomen and the thighs (sometimes also called pelvic region ), together with its embedded skeleton (sometimes also called bony pelvis or pelvic skeleton ).
98-470: A sister is a woman or a girl who shares parents or a parent with another individual; a female sibling . The male counterpart is a brother . Although the term typically refers to a familial relationship, it is sometimes used endearingly to refer to non-familial relationships. A full sister is a first-degree relative . The English word sister comes from Old Norse systir which itself derives from Proto-Germanic *swestēr , both of which have
196-400: A gender binary in which woman is one of the two genders, the other being man ; others have a third gender . Most women are cisgender , meaning they were assigned female at birth and have a female gender identity . Transgender women were assigned male at birth and have a female gender identity and may experience gender dysphoria (distress brought upon by the discrepancy between
294-407: A girl . Typically, women are of the female sex and inherit a pair of X chromosomes , one from each parent, and fertile women are capable of pregnancy and giving birth from puberty until menopause . More generally, sex differentiation of the female fetus is governed by the lack of a present, or functioning, SRY gene on either one of the respective sex chromosomes. Female anatomy
392-400: A better support. The obturators have their origins on either sides of the obturator foramen and are inserted into the trochanteric fossa on the femur. Quadratus arises on the ischial tuberosity and is inserted into the intertrochanteric crest . The superior and inferior gemelli , arising from the ischial spine and ischial tuberosity respectively, can be thought of as marginal heads of
490-455: A combination of economic changes and the efforts of the feminist movement , in recent decades women in many societies have gained access to careers beyond the traditional homemaker . Despite these advances, modern women in Western society still face challenges in the workplace as well as with the topics of education, violence, health care, politics, and motherhood, and others. Sexism can be
588-451: A common insertion on the lesser trochanter of the femur. Of these, only iliacus is attached to the pelvis (the iliac fossa ). However, psoas passes through the pelvis and because it acts on two joints, it is topographically classified as a posterior abdominal muscle but functionally as a hip muscle. Iliopsoas flexes and externally rotates the hip joints, while unilateral contraction bends the trunk laterally and bilateral contraction raises
686-559: A female gender identity , while intersex women have sex characteristics that do not fit typical notions of female biology. The spelling of woman in English has progressed over the past millennium from wīfmann to wīmmann to wumman , and finally, the modern spelling woman . In Old English , mann had the gender-neutral meaning of ' human ' , akin to the Modern ' person ' or ' someone ' . The word for ' woman '
784-580: A girl's coming of age , such as confirmation in some branches of Christianity , bat mitzvah in Judaism , or a custom of a special celebration for a certain birthday (generally between 12 and 21), like the quinceañera of Latin America. Male and female bodies have some differences . Some differences, such as the external sex organs , are visible, while other differences, such as internal anatomy and genetic characteristics, are not visible. Typically,
882-513: A main concern and barrier for women almost anywhere, though its forms, perception, and gravity vary between societies and social classes. There has been an increase in the endorsement of egalitarian gender roles in the home by both women and men. Although a greater number of women are seeking higher education, their salaries are often less than those of men. CBS News said in 2005 that in the United States women who are ages 30 to 44 and hold
980-617: A married woman ( ' wife ' ). It is a popular misconception that the term "woman" is etymologically connected to "womb". "Womb" derives from the Old English word wamb meaning ' belly, uterus ' (cognate to the modern German colloquial term " Wamme " from Old High German wamba for ' belly, paunch, lap ' ). The word woman can be used generally, to mean any female human, or specifically, to mean an adult female human as contrasted with girl . The word girl originally meant "young person of either sex" in English; it
1078-409: A natural birth would be possible, a practice today limited to cases where a specific problem is suspected or following a caesarean delivery. William Edgar Caldwell and Howard Carmen Moloy studied collections of skeletal pelves and thousands of stereoscopic radiograms and finally recognized three types of female pelves plus the masculine type. In 1933 and 1934 they published their typology, including
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#17327767011681176-594: A nutritious secretion that is the most distinctive characteristic of mammals, along with live birth. In mature women, the breast is generally more prominent than in most other mammals; this prominence, not necessary for milk production, is thought to be at least partially the result of sexual selection . Estrogens , which are primary female sex hormones, have a significant impact on a female's body shape. They are produced in both men and women, but their levels are significantly higher in women, especially in those of reproductive age. Besides other functions, estrogens promote
1274-403: A pair of important pelvic openings. The iliolumbar ligament is a strong ligament which connects the tip of the transverse process of the fifth lumbar vertebra to the posterior part of the inner lip of the iliac crest. It can be thought of as the lower border of the thoracolumbar fascia and is occasionally accompanied by a smaller ligamentous band passing between the fourth lumbar vertebra and
1372-404: A person's gender identity and their sex assigned at birth). Gender dysphoria may be treated with gender-affirming care , which may include social or medical transition . Social transition may involve changes such as adopting a new name , hairstyle , clothing , and pronoun associated with the individual's affirmed female gender identity. A major component of medical transition for trans women
1470-476: A proximal which radiates into the iliotibial tract and a distal which inserts into the gluteal tuberosity on the posterior side of the femoral shaft. It is primarily an extensor and lateral rotator of the hip joint, but, because of its bipartite insertion, it can both adduct and abduct the hip. Medius and minimus arise on the external surface of the ilium and are both inserted into the greater trochanter. Their anterior fibers are medial rotators and flexors while
1568-551: A university degree make 62% of what similarly qualified men do, a lower rate than in all but three of the 19 countries for which numbers are available. Some Western nations with greater inequality in pay are Germany, New Zealand and Switzerland. Particular religious doctrines have specific stipulations relating to gender roles , social and private interaction between the sexes, appropriate dressing attire for women, and various other issues affecting women and their position in society. In many countries, these religious teachings influence
1666-409: A woman have changed significantly since the early 20th century as women gained more rights and greater representation in the workforce, with scholarship in the 1970s moving toward a focus on the sex–gender distinction and social construction of gender . There are various words used to refer to the quality of being a woman. The term "womanhood" merely means the state of being a woman; " femininity "
1764-403: A young age differed according to gender. Traditionally, middle class women were involved in domestic tasks emphasizing child care. For poorer women, economic necessity compelled them to seek employment outside the home even if individual poor women may have preferred domestic tasks. Many of the occupations that were available to them were lower in pay than those available to men. As changes in
1862-472: Is feminizing hormone therapy , which causes the development of female secondary sex characteristics (such as breasts , redistribution of body fat, and lower waist–hip ratio ). Medical transition may also involve gender-affirming surgery , and a trans woman may undergo one or more feminizing procedures which result in anatomy that is typically gendered female. Like cisgender women, trans women may have any sexual orientation. Factors that specifically affect
1960-605: Is a set of attributes, behaviors, and roles generally associated with women and girls. Although femininity is socially constructed, some behaviors considered feminine are biologically influenced. The extent to which femininity is biologically or socially influenced is subject to debate. It is distinct from the definition of the biological female sex, as both men and women can exhibit feminine traits. The earliest women whose names are known include: In recent history, gender roles have changed greatly. At some earlier points in history, children's occupational aspirations starting at
2058-421: Is an extension of the anterior longitudinal ligament (ALL) that run down the anterior side of the vertebral bodies . Its irregular fibers blend with the periosteum . The posterior sacrococcygeal ligament has a deep and a superficial part, the former is a flat band corresponding to the posterior longitudinal ligament (PLL) and the latter corresponds to the ligamenta flava . Several other ligaments complete
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#17327767011682156-401: Is art drawing. Some studies also found a correlation between having an older sister and constructive discussions about safe sexual practices. Some studies have shown that men without sisters are more likely to be ineffectual at courtship and romantic relationships. Woman A woman is an adult female human . Before adulthood, a female child or adolescent is referred to as
2254-420: Is bounded by the bones of the pelvis and which primarily contains reproductive organs and the rectum . A distinction is made between the lesser or true pelvis inferior to the terminal line , and the greater or false pelvis above it. The pelvic inlet or superior pelvic aperture, which leads into the lesser pelvis, is bordered by the promontory , the arcuate line of ilium , the iliopubic eminence ,
2352-522: Is defined by WHO as "the death of a woman while pregnant or within 42 days of termination of pregnancy, irrespective of the duration and site of the pregnancy, from any cause related to or aggravated by the pregnancy or its management but not from accidental or incidental causes." In 2008, noting that each year more than 500,000 women die of complications of pregnancy and childbirth and at least seven million experience serious health problems while 50 million more have adverse health consequences after childbirth,
2450-776: Is distinguished from male anatomy by the female reproductive system , which includes the ovaries , fallopian tubes , uterus , vagina , and vulva . An adult woman generally has a wider pelvis , broader hips , and larger breasts than an adult man . These characteristics facilitate childbirth and breastfeeding . Women typically have less facial and other body hair, have a higher body fat composition, and are on average shorter and less muscular than men. Throughout human history , traditional gender roles within patriarchal societies have often defined and limited women's activities and opportunities, resulting in gender inequality ; many religious doctrines and legal systems stipulate certain rules for women. With restrictions loosening during
2548-418: Is due to lower testosterone, which stimulates the production of erythropoietin by the kidney. The normal hematocrit level for a woman is 36% to 48% (for men, 41% to 50%). The normal level of hemoglobin (an oxygen-transport protein found in red blood cells) for women is 12.0 to 15.5 g/dL (for men, 13.5 to 17.5 g/dL). Women's hearts have finer-grained textures in the muscle compared to men's hearts, and
2646-406: Is formed by the iliac bone; the anterior side stretches from the acetabulum up to the anterior superior iliac spine ; the posterior side reaches from the top of the acetabulum to the sacroiliac joint ; and the third side is formed by the palpable iliac crest . The lower ring, formed by the rami of the pubic and ischial bones , supports the acetabulum and is twisted 80–90 degrees in relation to
2744-766: Is generally longer than men's. This advantage begins from birth, with newborn girls more likely to survive the first year than boys. Worldwide, women live six to eight years longer than men. However, this varies by place and situation. For example, discrimination against women has lowered female life expectancy in some parts of Asia so that men there live longer than women. The difference in life expectancy are believed to be partly due to biological advantages and partly due to gendered behavioral differences between men and women. For example, women are less likely to engage in unhealthy behaviors like smoking and reckless driving , and consequently have fewer preventable premature deaths from such causes. In some developed countries,
2842-552: Is often controversial . Some intersex conditions are associated with typical rates of female gender identity , while others are associated with substantially higher rates of identifying as LGBT compared compared to the general population. Female sexuality and attraction are variable, and a woman's sexual behavior can be affected by many factors, including evolved predispositions , personality , upbringing , and culture . While most women are heterosexual , significant minorities are lesbian or bisexual . Most cultures use
2940-426: Is still made of cartilage (but there may be a small piece of bone in the great trochanter of the femur); this makes it difficult to detect congenital hip dislocation by X-raying . "In terms of comparative anatomy the human scapula represents two bones that have become fused together; the (dorsal) scapula proper and the (ventral) coracoid. The epiphyseal line across the glenoid cavity is the line of fusion. They are
3038-425: Is strengthened by the ventral , interosseous , and dorsal sacroiliac ligaments . The most important accessory ligaments of the sacroiliac joint are the sacrospinous and sacrotuberous ligaments which stabilize the hip bone on the sacrum and prevent the promonotory from tilting forward. Additionally, these two ligaments transform the greater and lesser sciatic notches into the greater and lesser foramina ,
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3136-408: Is thus the only of the four acting on two joints. The posterior thigh muscles have their origins on the inferior ischial ramus , with the exception of the short head of the biceps femoris . The semitendinosus and semimembranosus are inserted on the tibia on the medial side of the knee, while biceps femoris is inserted on the fibula , on the knee's lateral side. In later stages of pregnancy
3234-526: Is to produce abdominal pressure in order to constrict the abdominal cavity and pull the diaphragm upward. There are two muscles in the deep or posterior group. Quadratus lumborum arises from the posterior part of the iliac crest and extends to the rib XII and lumbar vertebrae I–IV. It unilaterally bends the trunk to the side and bilaterally pulls the 12th rib down and assists in expiration. The iliopsoas consists of psoas major (and occasionally psoas minor ) and iliacus , muscles with separate origins but
3332-461: Is used to refer to a set of typical female qualities associated with a certain attitude to gender roles ; "womanliness" is like "femininity", but is usually associated with a different view of gender roles. "Distaff" is an archaic adjective derived from women's conventional role as a spinner, now used only as a deliberate archaism . Menarche, the onset of menstruation , occurs on average at age 12–13. Many cultures have rites of passage to symbolize
3430-573: The corpora cavernosa penis and clitoridis . Modern humans are to a large extent characterized by bipedal locomotion and large brains . Because the pelvis is vital to both locomotion and childbirth, natural selection has been confronted by two conflicting demands: a wide birth canal and locomotion efficiency, a conflict referred to as the " obstetrical dilemma ". The female pelvis, or gynecoid pelvis , has evolved to its maximum width for childbirth—a wider pelvis would make women unable to walk. In contrast, human male pelvises are not constrained by
3528-668: The criminal law , or the family law of those jurisdictions (see Sharia law , for example). The relation between religion, law and gender equality has been discussed by international organizations. The UN Declaration on the Elimination of Violence against Women defines "violence against women" as: any act of gender-based violence that results in, or is likely to result in, physical, sexual or mental harm or suffering to women, including threats of such acts, coercion or arbitrary deprivation of liberty, whether occurring in public or in private life. Pelvis The pelvic region of
3626-418: The fetus 's head aligns inside the pelvis. Also joints of bones soften due to the effect of pregnancy hormones. These factors may cause pelvic joint pain ( symphysis pubis dysfunction or SPD). As the end of pregnancy approaches, the ligaments of the sacroiliac joint loosen, letting the pelvis outlet widen somewhat; this is easily noticeable in the cow . During childbirth (unless by Cesarean section )
3724-400: The foramen of the last sacral nerve . The inferior parts of latissimus dorsi , one of the muscles of the upper limb, arises from the posterior third of the iliac crest. Its action on the shoulder joint are internal rotation, adduction, and retroversion. It also contributes to respiration (i.e. coughing). When the arm is adducted, latissimus dorsi can pull it backward and medially until
3822-643: The heart muscle 's overall shape and surface area also differs to men's when controlling for body size and age. In addition, women's hearts age more slowly compared to men's hearts. Girls are born slightly less frequently than boys (the ratio is around 1:1.05). Out of the total human population in 2015, there were 1018 men for every 1000 women. Intersex women have an intersex condition, usually defined as those born with ambiguous genitalia . Most individuals with ambiguous genitalia are assigned female at birth, and most intersex women are cisgender . The medical practices to assign binary female to intersex youth
3920-420: The iliac fossa to join psoas at the iliopubic eminence to form the iliopsoas which is inserted into the lesser trochanter. The iliopsoas is the most powerful hip flexor. The posterior group includes the gluteus maximus , gluteus medius , and gluteus minimus . Maximus has a wide origin stretching from the posterior part of the iliac crest and along the sacrum and coccyx, and has two separate insertions:
4018-440: The inferior ischial and pubic rami and extends to the urogenital hiatus. The urogenital diaphragm is reinforced posteriorly by the superficial transverse perineal . The external anal and urethral sphincters close the anus and the urethra. The former is surrounded by the bulbospongiosus which narrows the vaginal introitus in females and surrounds the corpus spongiosum in males. Ischiocavernosus squeezes blood into
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4116-413: The ischial spine and converge on the coccyx and the anococcygeal ligament which spans between the tip of the coccyx and the anal hiatus . This leaves a slit for the anal and urogenital openings. Because of the width of the genital aperture, which is wider in females, a second closing mechanism is required. The urogenital diaphragm consists mainly of the deep transverse perineal which arises from
4214-439: The pecten of the pubis , and the upper part of the pubic symphysis . The pelvic outlet or inferior pelvic aperture is the region between the subpubic angle or pubic arch , the ischial tuberosities and the coccyx . Alternatively, the pelvis is divided into three planes: the inlet, midplane, and outlet. The pelvic floor has two inherently conflicting functions: One is to close the pelvic and abdominal cavities and bear
4312-444: The pubic symphysis by a fibrous cartilage covered by a hyaline cartilage , the interpubic disk, within which a non-synovial cavity might be present. Two ligaments, the superior and inferior pubic ligaments , reinforce the symphysis. Both sacroiliac joints , formed between the auricular surfaces of the sacrum and the two hip bones. are amphiarthroses , almost immobile joints enclosed by very taut joint capsules. This capsule
4410-403: The sternum down to the pubic crest . At the lower end of the rectus abdominis, the pyramidalis tenses the linea alba . The lateral superficial muscles, the transversus and external and internal oblique muscles, originate on the rib cage and on the pelvis (iliac crest and inguinal ligament ) and are attached to the anterior and posterior layers of the sheath of the rectus. Flexing
4508-420: The 1970s, many female academics, including scientists, avoided having children. Throughout the 1980s, institutions tried to equalize conditions for men and women in the workplace. Even so, the inequalities at home hampered women's opportunities: professional women were still generally considered responsible for domestic labor and child care, which limited the time and energy they could devote to their careers. Until
4606-444: The 20th century in many societies, women have gained wider access to careers and the ability to pursue higher education. Violence against women , whether within families or in communities, has a long history and is primarily committed by men. Some women are denied reproductive rights . The movements and ideologies of feminism have a shared goal of achieving gender equality . Transgender women were assigned male at birth and have
4704-479: The Greek names since then frequently quoted in various handbooks: Gynaecoid ( gyne , woman), anthropoid ( anthropos , human being), platypelloid ( platys , flat), and android ( aner , man). However, Caldwell and Moloy then complicated this simple fourfold scheme by dividing the pelvic inlet into posterior and anterior segments. They named a pelvis according to the anterior segment and affixed another type according to
4802-620: The US ranked 12th of the 14 developed countries that were analyzed and since that time the death rates of every country have steadily improved while the US rate has spiked dramatically. While the others that were analyzed in 1990 show a 2017 death rate of fewer than 10 deaths per every 100,000 live births, the U.S. rate rose to 26.4. Furthermore, for every one of the 700 to 900 women who die in the U.S. each year during pregnancy or childbirth, 70 experience significant complications, totaling more than one percent of all births. The life expectancy for women
4900-937: The World Health Organization urged midwife training to strengthen maternal and newborn health services. To support the upgrading of midwifery skills the WHO established a midwife training program, Action for Safe Motherhood. In 2017, 94% of maternal deaths occur in low and lower middle-income countries. Approximately 86% of maternal deaths occur in sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia , with sub-Saharan Africa accounting for around 66% and Southern Asia accounting for around 20%. The main causes of maternal mortality include pre-eclampsia and eclampsia , unsafe abortion , pregnancy complications from malaria and HIV/AIDS , and severe bleeding and infections following childbirth. Most European countries, Australia, Japan, and Singapore are very safe in regard to childbirth. In 1990,
4998-463: The accessory glands ( Bartholin's and Skene's ), two pairs of glands that help lubricate during intercourse, and the vagina , an organ used in copulating and birthing. The vulva (external female genitalia) consists of the clitoris , labia majora , labia minora and vestibule . The vestibule is where the vaginal and urethral openings are located. The mammary glands are hypothesized to have evolved from apocrine-like glands to produce milk,
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#17327767011685096-431: The aid of their parents or guardians to fully mature. Sometimes humans have multiple births , most commonly twins . Usually between ages 49–52, a woman reaches menopause , the time when menstrual periods stop permanently, and they are no longer able to bear children. Unlike most other mammals, the human lifespan usually extends many years after menopause. Many women become grandmothers and contribute to
5194-407: The area of the back), by the sacrum and the coccyx and laterally and anteriorly (forward and to the sides), by a pair of hip bones . Each hip bone consists of three sections: ilium , ischium , and pubis . During childhood, these sections are separate bones, joined by the triradiate cartilage . During puberty, they fuse together to form a single bone. The pelvic cavity is a body cavity that
5292-400: The articular processes of the two bones. In addition to these ligaments the joint is strengthened by the iliolumbar and lateral lumbosacral ligaments. The iliolumbar ligament passes between the tip of the transverse process of the fifth lumbar vertebra and the posterior part of the iliac crest. The lateral lumbosacral ligament, partly continuous with the iliolumbar ligament, passes down from
5390-554: The axial skeleton to the lower appendicular skeleton when standing and walking, and providing attachments for and withstanding the forces of the powerful muscles of locomotion and posture. Compared to the shoulder girdle, the pelvic girdle is thus strong and rigid. Its secondary functions are to contain and protect the pelvic and abdominopelvic viscera (inferior parts of the urinary tracts, internal reproductive organs), providing attachment for external reproductive organs and associated muscles and membranes. The pelvic girdle consists of
5488-441: The back of the hand covers the buttocks. In a longitudinal osteofibrous canal on either side of the spine there is a group of muscles called the erector spinae which is subdivided into a lateral superficial and a medial deep tract. In the lateral tract, the iliocostalis lumborum and longissimus thoracis originates on the back of the sacrum and the posterior part of the iliac crest. Contracting these muscles bilaterally extends
5586-410: The bony pelvis has a gap in the middle, significantly larger in females than in males. Their offspring pass through this gap when they are born . The pelvic region of the trunk is the lower part of the trunk , between the abdomen and the thighs . It includes several structures: the bony pelvis, the pelvic cavity, the pelvic floor, and the perineum. The bony pelvis (pelvic skeleton) is the part of
5684-448: The care of grandchildren and other family members. Many biologists believe that the extended human lifespan is evolutionarily driven by kin selection , though other theories have also been proposed. In terms of biology , the female sex organs are involved in the reproductive system, whereas the secondary sex characteristics are involved in breastfeeding children and attracting a mate. Humans are placental mammals , which means
5782-533: The cells of female humans contain two X chromosomes, while the cells of male humans have an X and a Y chromosome. During early fetal development , all embryos have phenotypically female genitalia up until week 6 or 7, when a male embryo's gonads differentiate into testes due to the action of the SRY gene on the Y chromosome. Sex differentiation proceeds in female humans in a way that is independent of gonadal hormones. Because humans inherit mitochondrial DNA only from
5880-432: The counterparts of the ilium and ischium of the pelvic girdle." There is preliminary evidence that the pelvis continues to widen over the course of a lifetime. The skeleton of the pelvis is a basin-shaped ring of bones connecting the vertebral column to the femora. It is then connected to two hip bones. Its primary functions are to bear the weight of the upper body when sitting and standing, transferring that weight from
5978-438: The development of female secondary sexual characteristics , such as breasts and hips . As a result of estrogens, during puberty , girls develop breasts and their hips widen. Working against estrogen, the presence of testosterone in a pubescent female inhibits breast development and promotes muscle and facial hair development. Women have lower hematocrit (the volume percentage of red blood cells in blood) than men; this
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#17327767011686076-473: The early 20th century, U.S. women's colleges required their women faculty members to remain single, on the grounds that a woman could not carry on two full-time professions at once. According to Schiebinger, "Being a scientist and a wife and a mother is a burden in society that expects women more often than men to put family ahead of career." (p. 93). Movements advocate equality of opportunity for both sexes and equal rights irrespective of gender. Through
6174-418: The eggs with sperm , via either sexual intercourse or artificial insemination , though in vitro fertilization allows fertilization to occur outside the human body. Humans are similar to other large mammals in that they usually give birth to a single offspring per pregnancy, but are unusual in being altricial compared to most other large mammals, meaning young are undeveloped at time of birth and require
6272-428: The exception of gracilis , inserted along the femoral shaft. Together with sartorius and semitendinosus , gracilis reaches beyond the knee to their common insertion on the tibia . The anterior thigh muscles form the quadriceps which is inserted on the patella with a common tendon. Three of the four muscles have their origins on the femur, while rectus femoris arises from the anterior inferior iliac spine and
6370-406: The femur into the acetabulum and flexes, medially rotates, and abducts the hip. The ventral hip muscles are important in the control of the body's balance. The internal and external obturator muscles together with the quadratus femoris are lateral rotators of the hip. Together they are stronger than the medial rotators and therefore the feet point outward in the normal position to achieve
6468-489: The fetus passes through the maternal pelvic opening . Hip fractures often affect the elderly and occur more often in females; this is frequently due to osteoporosis . There are also different types of pelvic fracture , often resulting from traffic accidents . Pelvic pain can affect anybody and has a variety of causes, including bowel adhesions , irritable bowel syndrome , interstitial cystitis , and endometriosis in women. There are many anatomical variations of
6566-620: The health of women in comparison with men are most evident in those related to reproduction , but sex differences have been identified from the molecular to the behavioral scale. Some of these differences are subtle and difficult to explain, partly due to the fact that it is difficult to separate the health effects of inherent biological factors from the effects of the surrounding environment they exist in. Sex chromosomes and hormones, as well as sex-specific lifestyles, metabolism, immune system function, and sensitivity to environmental factors are believed to contribute to sex differences in health at
6664-594: The human body posture and is adjusted at the hips. It is also one of the rare things that can be measured at the assessment of the posture. A simple method of measurement was described by the British orthopedist Philip Willes and is performed by using an inclinometer . The lumbosacral joint , between the sacrum and the last lumbar vertebra , has, like all vertebral joints, an intervertebral disc , anterior and posterior ligaments , ligamenta flava , interspinous and supraspinous ligaments , and synovial joints between
6762-415: The iliac crest. The lateral lumbosacral ligament is partly continuous with the iliolumbar ligament. It passes between the transverse process of the fifth vertebra to the ala of the sacrum where it intermingle with the anterior sacroiliac ligament. The joint between the sacrum and the coccyx, the sacrococcygeal symphysis , is strengthened by a series of ligaments. The anterior sacrococcygeal ligament
6860-477: The labor market for women came about, availability of employment changed from only "dirty", long hour factory jobs to "cleaner", more respectable office jobs where more education was demanded. Married women's participation in the U.S. labor force rose from 5.6–6% in 1900 to 23.8% in 1923. These shifts in the labor force led to changes in the attitudes towards women at work, allowing for the revolution which resulted in women becoming career and education oriented. In
6958-449: The levels of physiology, perception, and cognition. Women can have distinct responses to drugs and thresholds for diagnostic parameters. Some diseases primarily affect or are exclusively found in women, such as lupus , breast cancer , cervical cancer , or ovarian cancer . The medical practice dealing with female reproduction and reproductive organs is called gynaecology ("science of women"). Maternal mortality or maternal death
7056-1141: The life expectancy is evening out. This is believed to caused both by worse health behaviors among women, especially an increased rate of smoking tobacco by women , and improved health among men, such as less cardiovascular disease . The World Health Organization (WHO) writes that it is "important to note that the extra years of life for women are not always lived in good health." Reproductive rights are legal rights and freedoms relating to reproduction and reproductive health . The International Federation of Gynecology and Obstetrics has stated that: The World Health Organization reports that based on data from 2010 to 2014, 56 million induced abortions occurred worldwide each year (25% of all pregnancies). Of those, about 25 million were considered as unsafe . The WHO reports that in developed regions about 30 women die for every 100,000 unsafe abortions and that number rises to 220 deaths per 100,000 unsafe abortions in developing regions and 520 deaths per 100,000 unsafe abortions in sub-Saharan Africa. The WHO ascribes these deaths to: Femininity (also called womanliness or girlishness )
7154-400: The ligaments considerably limit the range of motions. The three extracapsular ligaments of the hip joint —the iliofemoral , ischiofemoral , and pubofemoral ligaments —form a twisting mechanism encircling the neck of the femur . When sitting, with the hip joint flexed, these ligaments become lax permitting a high degree of mobility in the joint. When standing, with the hip joint extended,
7252-415: The ligaments get twisted around the femoral neck, pushing the head of the femur firmly into the acetabulum , thus stabilizing the joint. The zona orbicularis assists in maintaining the contact in the joint by acting like a buttonhole on the femoral head. The intracapsular ligament, the ligamentum teres , transmits blood vessels that nourish the femoral head. The two hip bones are joined anteriorly at
7350-408: The load of the visceral organs; the other is to control the openings of the rectum and urogenital organs that pierce the pelvic floor and make it weaker. To achieve both these tasks, the pelvic floor is composed of several overlapping sheets of muscles and connective tissues. The pelvic diaphragm is composed of the levator ani and the coccygeus muscle . These arise between the symphysis and
7448-416: The lower border of the transverse process of the fifth vertebra to the ala of the sacrum. The movements possible in the lumbosacral joint are flexion and extension, a small amount of lateral flexion (from 7 degrees in childhood to 1 degree in adults), but no axial rotation. Between ages 2–13 the joint is responsible for as much as 75% (about 18 degrees) of flexion and extension in the lumbar spine. From age 35
7546-400: The medial tract, the multifidi originates on the sacrum . The muscles of the abdominal wall are subdivided into a superficial and a deep group. The superficial group is subdivided into a lateral and a medial group. In the medial superficial group, on both sides of the centre of the abdominal wall (the linea alba ), the rectus abdominis stretches from the cartilages of ribs V-VII and
7644-455: The more sisters they have. The reverse is true for young boys with several sisters, as they tend to be feminine , however, they outgrow this by the time they approach pubescence . Boys with older sisters were less likely to be delinquent or have emotional and behavioral disorders . A younger sister is less likely to be scolded by older siblings than a younger brother. The most common recreational activity between older brother/younger sister pairs
7742-427: The mother carries the fetus in the uterus and the placenta facilitates the exchange of nutrients and waste between the mother and fetus. The internal female genitalia consist of the ovaries , gonads that produce female gametes called ova , the fallopian tubes , tubular structures that transport the egg cells, the uterus , an organ with tissue to protect and nurture the developing fetus and its cervix to expel it,
7840-623: The mother's ovum, genealogical researchers can trace maternal lineage far back in time. Female puberty triggers bodily changes that enable sexual reproduction via fertilization . In response to chemical signals from the pituitary gland , the ovaries secrete hormones that stimulate maturation of the body, including increased height and weight, body hair growth, breast development and menarche (the onset of menstruation). Most girls go through menarche between ages 12–13, and are then capable of becoming pregnant and bearing children . Pregnancy generally requires internal fertilization of
7938-399: The need to give birth and therefore are more optimized for bipedal locomotion. The principal differences between male and female true and false pelvis include: Each side of the pelvis is formed as cartilage, which ossifies as three main bones which stay separate through childhood: ilium , ischium , pubis . At birth the whole of the hip joint (the acetabulum area and the top of the femur)
8036-407: The obturator internus, and their main function is to assist this muscle. The muscles of the thigh can be subdivided into adductors (medial group), extensors (anterior group), and flexors (posterior group). The extensors and flexors act on the knee joint, while the adductors mainly act on the hip joint. The thigh adductors have their origins on the inferior ramus of the pubic bone and are, with
8134-448: The pelvis. In the female the pelvis can be of a much larger size than normal, known as a giant pelvis or pelvis justo major , or it can be much smaller, known as a reduced pelvis or pelvis justo minor. Other variations include an android pelvis, a pelvis of the normal male shape in a female, which can prove problematic in childbirth . Throughout the 20th century pelvimetric measurements were made on pregnant women to determine whether
8232-636: The pheromones in their brothers' sweat and household-related errands. Various studies have shown that older sisters are likely to give a varied gender role to their younger siblings, as well as being more likely to develop a close bond with their younger siblings. Older sisters are more likely to play with their younger siblings. Younger siblings display more needy behavior when near their older sister and are more likely to be tolerant of an older sister's bad behavior. Boys with only one older sister are more likely to display stereotypically male behavior, and such masculine boys increased their masculine behavior with
8330-408: The posterior fibers are lateral rotators and extensors. The piriformis has its origin on the ventral side of the sacrum and is inserted on the greater trochanter. It abducts and laterally rotates the hip in the upright posture and assists in extension of the thigh. The tensor fasciae latae arises on the anterior superior iliac spine and inserts into the iliotibial tract. It presses the head of
8428-403: The sacrum posteriorly, connected to each other anteriorly, and joined with the two femurs at the hip joints . The gap enclosed by the bony pelvis, called the pelvic cavity, is the section of the body underneath the abdomen and mainly consists of the reproductive organs and the rectum , while the pelvic floor at the base of the cavity assists in supporting the organs of the abdomen. In mammals,
8526-556: The same meaning, i.e. sister. Some studies have found that sisters display more traits indicating jealousy around their siblings than their male counterparts, brothers . In some cultures, sisters are afforded a role of being under the protection by male siblings, especially older brothers, from issues ranging from bullies or sexual advances by womanizers. In some quarters, the term sister has gradually broadened its colloquial meaning to include individuals stipulating kinship . In response, in order to avoid equivocation, some publishers prefer
8624-405: The skeleton embedded in the pelvic region of the trunk. It is subdivided into the pelvic girdle and the pelvic spine. The pelvic girdle is composed of the appendicular hip bones ( ilium , ischium , and pubis ) oriented in a ring, and connects the pelvic region of the spine to the lower limbs. The pelvic spine consists of the sacrum and coccyx . The pelvic skeleton is formed posteriorly (in
8722-433: The spine and unilaterally contraction bends the spine to the same side. The medial tract has a "straight" ( interspinales , intertransversarii , and spinalis ) and an "oblique" ( multifidus and semispinalis ) component, both of which stretch between vertebral processes; the former acts similar to the muscles of the lateral tract, while the latter function unilaterally as spine extensors and bilaterally as spine rotators. In
8820-425: The superior ring. An alternative approach is to consider the pelvis part of an integrated mechanical system based on the tensegrity icosahedron as an infinite element. Such a system is able to withstand omnidirectional forces—ranging from weight-bearing to childbearing—and, as a low energy requiring system, is favoured by natural selection . The pelvic inclination angle is the single most important element of
8918-422: The trunk (bending forward) is essentially a movement of the rectus muscles, while lateral flexion (bending sideways) is achieved by contracting the obliques together with the quadratus lumborum and intrinsic back muscles. Lateral rotation (rotating either the trunk or the pelvis sideways) is achieved by contracting the internal oblique on one side and the external oblique on the other. The transversus' main function
9016-434: The trunk from the supine position . The muscles of the hip are divided into a dorsal and a ventral group. The dorsal hip muscles are either inserted into the region of the lesser trochanter (anterior or inner group) or the greater trochanter (posterior or outer group). Anteriorly, the psoas major (and occasionally psoas minor ) originates along the spine between the rib cage and pelvis. The iliacus originates on
9114-429: The trunk includes the bony pelvis, the pelvic cavity (the space enclosed by the bony pelvis), the pelvic floor , below the pelvic cavity, and the perineum , below the pelvic floor. The pelvic skeleton is formed in the area of the back, by the sacrum and the coccyx and anteriorly and to the left and right sides, by a pair of hip bones . The two hip bones connect the spine with the lower limbs. They are attached to
9212-435: The two hip bones. The hip bones are connected to each other anteriorly at the pubic symphysis , and posteriorly to the sacrum at the sacroiliac joints to form the pelvic ring. The ring is very stable and allows very little mobility, a prerequisite for transmitting loads from the trunk to the lower limbs. As a mechanical structure the pelvis may be thought of as four roughly triangular and twisted rings. Each superior ring
9310-467: The usage of female sibling over sister . Males with a twin sister sometimes view her as their female alter ego , or what they would have been like if they had two X chromosomes. A study in Perth, Australia found that girls having only youngers brothers resulted in a chastity effect : losing their virginity on average more than a year later than average. This has been hypothesized as being attributed to
9408-432: The word girl (or its equivalent in other languages) is still used to refer to a never-married woman; in this sense it is used in a fashion roughly analogous to the more-or-less obsolete English maid or maiden . Different countries have different laws, but age 18 is frequently considered the age of majority (the age at which a person is legally considered an adult). The social sciences' views on what it means to be
9506-501: Was wīf or wīfmann ( lit. ' woman-person ' ) whereas ' man ' was wer or wǣpnedmann (from wǣpn ' weapon; penis ' ). However, following the Norman Conquest , man began to mean ' male human ' , and by the late 13th century it had largely replaced wer . The consonants /f/ and /m/ in wīfmann coalesced into the modern woman , while wīf narrowed to specifically mean
9604-502: Was only around the beginning of the 16th century that it came to mean specifically a female child. The term girl is sometimes used colloquially to refer to a young or unmarried woman; however, during the early 1970s, feminists challenged such use because the use of the word to refer to a fully grown woman may cause offence. In particular, previously common terms such as office girl are no longer widely used. Conversely, in certain cultures which link family honor with female virginity ,
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