Misplaced Pages

#570429

73-546: Spartan citizenship was restricted to adult males without metic ancestry, as in most Greek poleis . Spartiate-class women could not hold citizenship but were eligible to marry Spartiates, and their sons could become Spartiates. After the First Messenian War , the mass enslavement of the Messenian population created a slave society (60-79% slaves; by contrast, US slave states generally had 30-65%). This society

146-474: A Theban army, liberating the helots and destroying the basis of the Spartan social system. The Spartan state never recovered its former power. Metic In ancient Greece , a metic ( Ancient Greek : μέτοικος , métoikos : from μετά , metá , indicating change, and οἶκος , oîkos 'dwelling') was a resident of Athens and some other cities who was a citizen of another polis . They held

219-521: A citizen, but upon investigation—not by consulting official records but by questions asked at the cheese market—it transpires that he may well be a runaway slave, so the hostile account attests.) Metics whose family had lived in Athens for generations may have been tempted to " pass " as citizens. On a number of occasions there were purges of the citizen lists, effectively changing people who had been living as citizens into metics. In typical Athenian fashion,

292-401: A comparatively large piece of territory and conquered population seems to have both provided the basis for the system of helotage and required the existence of a large military force to keep the potentially rebellious Messenians under control. The Spartiates thus became a permanently armed master class, living off the labor of the helots and preventing rebellion through constant struggle. During

365-532: A general rule with few exceptions, foreigners were not allowed to stay ( Xenelasia ). There are also reported immigrants to the court of tyrants and kings in Thessaly , Syracuse and Macedon , whose status is decided by the ruler. Due to these complications, the legal term metic is most closely associated with classical Athens. At Athens, the largest city in the Greek world at the time, they amounted to roughly half

438-738: A kingship on campaign" (iii. 24). The state was ruled by two hereditary kings of the Agiad and the Eurypontid dynasties, both descendants of Heracles and equal in authority so that one could not act against the power and political enactments of his colleague, though the Agiad king received greater honour by virtue of seniority of his family for being the "oldest extant" (Herod. vi. 5). There are several legendary explanations for this unusual dual kingship, which differ only slightly; for example, that King Aristodemus had twin sons , who agreed to share

511-413: A person so demoted could mount a challenge in court. If however the court decided the ejected citizen was in fact a metic, he would be sent down one further rung and sold into slavery. In studying the status of the metics, it is easy to gain the impression they were an oppressed minority. But by and large those who were Greek and freeborn had at least chosen to come to Athens, attracted by the prosperity of

584-548: A rigidly layered social system and a strong hoplite army. The Spartans had no historical records, literature, or written laws, which were, according to tradition, prohibited. Attributed to the mythical figure of Lycurgus , the legendary law-giver, the Spartan system of government is known mostly from the Constitution of the Lacedaemonians , a treatise attributed to the ancient Greek historian Xenophon , describing

657-466: A severe disincentive if they had been unable to pursue commercial disputes under law. At the same time they did not have exactly the same rights here as citizens. Unlike citizens, metics could be made to undergo judicial torture and the penalties for killing them were not as severe as for killing a citizen. Metics were also subject to enslavement for a variety of offences. These might either be failures to abide by their status obligations, such as not paying

730-421: A single year reduced their ability to conflict with already established powers in the state. Since reelection was not possible, an ephor who abused his power, or confronted an established power center, would have to suffer retaliation. Although the five ephors were the only officials with regular legitimization by popular vote, in practice they were often the most conservative force in Spartan politics. Sparta had

803-423: A special exemption. Neither could they sign contracts with the state to work in the silver mines, since the wealth beneath the earth was felt to belong to the political community. Metics were subject to a tax called the metoikion , assessed at twelve drachmas per year for metic men and their households, and six for independent metic women. In addition to the metoikion , non-Athenians wishing to sell goods in

SECTION 10

#1732772184571

876-466: A special policy maker, the Gerousia , a council consisting of 28 elders over the age of 60, elected for life and usually part of the royal households, and the two kings. High state policy decisions were discussed by this council who could then propose action alternatives to the demos . The collective body of Spartan citizenry would select one of the alternatives by voting . Unlike most Greek poleis ,

949-418: A status broadly analogous to modern permanent residency , being permitted indefinite residence without political rights. The history of foreign migration to Athens dates back to the archaic period. Solon was said to have offered Athenian citizenship to foreigners who would relocate to his city to practice a craft. However, metic status did not exist during the time of Solon. Scholars have tended to date

1022-476: Is known as a " rhetra " and is given in part by Plutarch as follows: Plutarch provides by way of explanation: "In these clauses, the "phylai" and the "obai" refer to divisions and distributions of the people into clans and phratries, or brotherhoods; by "archagetai" the kings are designated, and "appellazein" means to assemble the people, with a reference to Apollo, the Pythian god, who was the source and author of

1095-453: Is usually explained by the (equally legendary) descent of Aristodemus from Heracles . Either way, kingship in Sparta was hereditary and thus every king Sparta had was a descendant of the Agiad and the Eurypontid families. Accession was given to the male child who was first born after a king's accession. The duties of the kings were primarily religious , judicial, and militaristic . They were

1168-406: The metoikon tax or not nominating a citizen sponsor, or they might be "contaminations" of the citizen body like marrying a citizen or claiming to be citizens themselves. How long a foreigner could remain in Athens without counting as a metic is not known. In some other Greek cities the period was a month, and it may well have been the same at Athens. All metics there were required to register in

1241-547: The Battle of Plataea , Herodotus says that seven-ninths of the Spartan forces were helots, one-ninth (5000) were Spartiates, and the rest others. This was said to be the largest army Sparta ever fielded. Some Spartan armies, like one led by Brasidas in the Peloponnesian War , consisted entirely of non-Spartiates (excluding Brasidas). These armies maintained Sparta military rule of a large area of southern Greece, from

1314-685: The Helots , subjected populations tied to the land and over whom the Spartan state claimed ownership. In the late 5th century BC and later, a new class, the Neodamodes , literally "new to the community", seems to have been composed of liberated Helots. Douloi , who were chattel slaves not tied to the land, also existed; earlier sources conflate them with helots, but later sources distinguish them. All free classes seem to have owned chattel slaves. The Helots performed agricultural work, spinning, weaving and other manual labor. The Perioeci carried out most of

1387-468: The Hypomeiones , literally "inferiors", men who were probably Spartiates who had lost their social rank (probably mostly because they could not afford syssitia dues). The Mothax (singular Mothon) were fostered with Spartiates and are generally thought to have been the children of slave rape by Spartiates. They were prominent in military leadership. In the late 5th century BC and later, a new class,

1460-415: The Neodamodes , literally "new to the community", seems to have been composed of liberated Helots. The Epeunacti and Partheniae were among the other free non-citizen classes. The Trophimoi were a metic guest class. Helots were the state-owned serfs who made up 90 percent of the population. They were citizens of conquered states, such as Messenia, who were conquered for their fertile land during

1533-493: The Second Messenian War (650 BC), until the end of the short-lived Spartan hegemony (404-371 BC). A certain income was required to maintain syssitia membership, and thus Spartiate status. Rising inequality within the tiny Spartiate elite meant that many fell from citizen status. High rates of violent deaths and low birth rates caused a decline in the number of Spartiates. Some Spartiates made efforts to reform

SECTION 20

#1732772184571

1606-399: The agoge became a "peer" (ὅμοιος, hómoios , literally "similar") with full civil rights at the age of 20, and remained one as long as he could contribute his equal share of grain to the syssitia, a common military mess in which he was obliged to dine every evening for as long as he was battle-worthy (usually until the age of 60). The hómoioi were also required to sleep in the barracks until

1679-478: The agora , including metics, seem to have been liable to another tax known as the xenika . Although metics were barred from the assembly and exempted from jury service, they did have the same access to the courts as citizens. They could both prosecute others and be prosecuted themselves. A great many migrants came to Athens to do business and were in fact essential to the Athenian economy. It would have been

1752-478: The deme (local community) where they lived. They had to nominate a citizen as their sponsor or guardian ( prostates , literally 'one who stands on behalf of'). The Athenians took this last requirement very seriously. A metic without a sponsor was vulnerable to a special prosecution. If convicted, his property would be confiscated and he himself sold as a slave. For a freed slave the sponsor was automatically his former owner. This arrangement exacted some extra duties on

1825-516: The syssitia . Ancient sources over a long period mention rising inequality within the Spartiate class. The inability to pay became increasingly severe; as commercial activity began to develop in Sparta, some Spartiates would sell the land from which they were supposed to draw their earnings. Since the constitution included no known provisions for promotion to Spartiate status, the number of Spartiates gradually dwindled. Attempts at reform, notably by

1898-525: The 6th and 5th centuries BC, the Spartan system was at its height. In 555 BC, Sparta defeated Tegea and forced that state to become its ally. Around 544 BC, Sparta defeated Argos and established itself as the pre-eminent power in the Peloponnese . For over 150 years, Sparta became the dominant land power of Greece, with the Spartiates hoplites serving as the minority core of its army. To maintain

1971-628: The First Messenian War. Earlier sources conflate helots and douloi , who were chattel slaves , but later sources distinguish them. All free classes seem to have owned douloi. The Doric state of Sparta, copying the Doric Cretans , instituted a mixed governmental state : it was composed of elements of monarchical, oligarchical, and democratic systems. Isocrates refers to the Spartans as "subject to an oligarchy at home, to

2044-481: The Great Rhetra. Issuance of coinage was forbidden. Spartans were obliged to use iron obols (bars or spits), meant to encourage self-sufficiency and discourage avarice and the hoarding of wealth. A Spartan citizen in good standing (a Spartiate) was one who maintained his fighting skills, showed bravery in battle, ensured that his farms were productive, was married and had healthy children. Spartiate women were

2117-530: The Greco-French singer Georges Moustaki recorded a song, Le Métèque , which has since been covered by several artists of immigrant descent. Spartan Constitution The Spartan Constitution (or Spartan politeia ) are the government and laws of the classical Greek city-state of Sparta . All classical Greek city-states had a politeia; the politeia of Sparta however, was noted by many classical authors for its unique features, which supported

2190-581: The Perioeci but fought as light infantry instead of hoplites. There were also the Hypomeiones , literally "inferiors", men who were probably, although not certainly, Spartiates who had lost their social rank (probably mostly because they could not afford syssitia dues). The Mothax (singular Mothon) were fostered with Spartiates and are generally thought to have been the children of slave rape by Spartiates. See Spartan Constitution#Society for more free underclasses. The lowest caste in Spartan society were

2263-588: The Spartan citizen assembly ( Ekklesia ), could neither set the agenda of issues to be decided, nor debate them, merely vote on the alternatives presented to them. Neither could foreign embassies or emissaries address the assembly; they had to present their case to the Gerousia, which would then consult with the Ephors. Sparta considered all discourse from outside as a potential threat and all other states as past, present, or future enemies, to be treated with caution in

Spartiate - Misplaced Pages Continue

2336-412: The Spartan kings Agis IV and Cleomenes III , failed. By the mid-4th century BC, the number of Spartiates had been critically reduced, although Sparta continued to hold sway over much of Greece. Finally, at Leuctra in 371 BC, a Theban army decisively defeated a Spartan force, killing 400 Spartiates of a force of 700 and breaking the back of Spartan military power. In 370 BC, Messenia was liberated by

2409-408: The Spartans believed that strong and healthy parents would produce strong and healthy children. Spartiates were expected to adhere to an ideal of military valor, as exemplified by the poems of Tyrtaeus , who praised men who fell in battle and heaped scorn on those who fled. Such ideals were standard for hoplite forces across Greece, as they relied on each man defending his neighbor with his shield; if

2482-592: The age of 30, regardless of whether they were married or not. Besides the Spartiate class, there were many free non-citizen underclasses, many of them poorly described in classical sources. The Perioeci or Períoikoi , a social class and population group of non-citizen inhabitants. The Perioeci were free, unlike the helots , but were not full Spartan citizens. They had a central role in the Spartan economy, controlling commerce and business, as well as being responsible for crafts and manufacturing. The Sciritae were similar but fought as infantry not hopalites. There were also

2555-433: The armed forces. Spartiates were full citizens of the Spartan state (or part of the demos ). Most inhabitants of Sparta were not considered citizens. Only those who had successfully undertaken military training, called the agoge , and who were members in good standing of syssitia (mess hall), were eligible. Usually, the only people eligible to receive the agoge were sons of Spartiate—men who could trace their ancestry to

2628-545: The armed forces. According to classical accounts, the Spartan Constitution was the product of a great lawgiver, Lycurgus . He was said to have written the Spartan constitution early in the Archaic period , but dates in historical sources are wildly inconsistent. It is impossible to determine whether Lycurgus was an actual historical figure. It is clear, however, that at some point in the late Archaic period,

2701-455: The army assembly, the body that elected the ephors , the most powerful magistrates of Sparta after the kings. The Spartiates were also the source of the krypteia , a sort of secret police , which, by measures such as assassination and kidnapping, sought to prevent rebellion among the helots. In the late 5th and early 4th centuries BC, the Spartiate class gradually shrank in number, along with Spartan military prowess, for several reasons. First

2774-496: The chief priests of the state, and performed certain sacrifices and also maintained communication with the Delphic sanctuary, which always exercised great authority in Spartan politics . In the time of Herodotus (about 450 BC), their judicial functions had been restricted to cases dealing with heiresses , adoptions (although that seems to have been merely the religious duty of being present instead of making any decision) and

2847-663: The court without a prostate (patron) and came to an end in Hellenistic Athens, when the purchase of citizenship became very frequent. The census of Demetrius Phalereus in ca. 317 BC gave 21,000 citizens, 10,000 metics and 400,000 slaves ( Athenaeus , vi. p. 272 B). In the Greco-Roman world, free people (non-citizens) living on the territory of a polis were called paroikoi (see etymology of parish ), and in Asia Minor katoikoi . In French, métèque

2920-547: The development of metic status to the reforms of Cleisthenes in 508 BC. However, the rate of the increase in the Athenian population in the years following 480 BC is difficult to explain by purely natural growth – suggesting that immigrants to Athens could still become Athenians citizens at this point, and metic status did not yet exist. The first known use of the word metoikos is in Aeschylus ' play Persians , first performed in 472 BC. However, James Watson argues that

2993-430: The ephors, as well as to a council of elders . By 500 BC the Spartans had become increasingly involved in the political affairs of the surrounding city-states, often putting their weight behind pro-Spartan candidates. Shortly before 500 BC, as described by Herodotus , such an action fueled a confrontation between Sparta and Athens, when the two kings, Demaratus and Cleomenes, took their troops to Athens. However, just before

Spartiate - Misplaced Pages Continue

3066-458: The formation breaks, it is defeated. Each Spartiate male was assigned a plot of land, which included the helots that cultivated it. That was the source of their income since they performed no labor or commerce themselves. The majority of that income was used to fund communal mess halls , to which all Spartiates were required to belong. Any Spartiate who was unable to pay these dues was demoted from his class. Politically, Spartiate males composed

3139-552: The free population. The status applied to two main groups of people—immigrants and former slaves . As slaves were almost always of foreign origin they can be thought of as involuntary immigrants, drawn almost exclusively from non-Greek speaking areas, while free metics were usually of Greek origin. Mostly they came from mainland Greece rather than the remote parts of the Greek world. Metics held lower social status primarily due to cultural rather than economic restraints. Some were poor artisans and ex-slaves, while others were some of

3212-487: The heat of battle, King Demaratus changed his mind about attacking the Athenians and abandoned his co-king. For this reason, Demaratus was banished, and eventually found himself at the side of Persian King Xerxes for his invasion of Greece twenty years later (480 BC), after which the Spartans enacted a law demanding that one king remain behind in Sparta while the other commanded the troops in battle. Aristotle describes

3285-419: The institutions, customs, and practices of the ancient Spartans. According to Plutarch , Lycurgus (to whom is attributed the establishment of the severe reforms for which Sparta has become renowned, sometime in the 9th century BC) first sought counsel from the god Apollo by obtaining an oracle from Delphi regarding the formation of his government. The divine proclamation, which he received in this manner,

3358-517: The kingship at Sparta as "a kind of unlimited and perpetual generalship" (Pol. iii. I285a), Here also, however, the royal prerogatives were curtailed over time. Dating from the period of the Persian wars, the king lost the right to declare war , and was accompanied in the field by two ephors. He was supplanted also by the ephors in the control of foreign policy. Over time, the kings became mere figureheads except in their capacity as generals . Real power

3431-420: The kingship, and this became perpetual. Modern scholars have advanced various theories to account for the anomaly. Some theorise that this system was created in order to prevent absolutism , and is paralleled by the analogous instance of the dual consuls of Rome . Others believe that it points to a compromise arrived at to end the struggle between two families or communities . Other theories suggest that this

3504-488: The large, dynamic, cosmopolitan city and the opportunities not available to them in their place of origin. Metics remained citizens of their cities of birth, which, like Athens, had the exclusionary ancestral view of citizenship common to ancient Greek cities. The large non-citizen community of Athens allowed ex-slave metics to become assimilated in a way not possible in more conservative and homogenised cities elsewhere. Their participation in military service , taxation (for

3577-483: The male metic population to be ~25,000, roughly a third of the total. The majority of metics probably came to Athens from nearby cities, seeking economic opportunities or fleeing from persecution, although there are records of immigrants from non-Greek places such as Thrace and Lydia . In other Greek cities ( poleis ), foreign residents were few, with the exception of cosmopolitan Corinth , of which however we do not know their legal status. In Sparta and Crete , as

3650-427: The model of Spartan society shifted from a monarchical system to an aristocracy of the elite warrior class. That change is likely to have been in some way related to the transition from "Dark Age" warfare, in which nobles were the dominant force, to the hoplite warfare of the classical period. Around the time of that change, Sparta embarked on the conquest of the neighboring state of Messenia . The acquisition of such

3723-449: The most power and freedom, was the Spartiate class. Spartiates (Spartiate-class males over 30) held some extremely limited power in the government and would own kleroi (plots of land with associated Helots). Besides the Spartiate class, there were many free non-citizen underclasses. The Perioeci , literally meaning "dwelling around", were citizens of smaller Laconian polises that were subordinate to Sparta. The Skiritai were similar to

SECTION 50

#1732772184571

3796-564: The only Greek women to hold property rights on their own, and were required to practice sports before marriage. Although they had no formal political rights, they were expected to speak their minds boldly and their opinions were heard. Spartan society can be represented by a three-layer pyramid ruled by the government. Legally-defined social classes were quite rigid and important in ancient Sparta. They substantially controlled social roles. The Helots did agricultural labour, spinning, weaving, and other manual labour. The Perioeci carried out most of

3869-403: The original inhabitants of the city. There were two exceptions to this rule. Trophimoi ("foster sons") were foreign teenagers invited to study. This was meant as a supreme honour. The pro-Spartan Athenian magnate Xenophon sent his two sons to Sparta for their education as trophimoi . Alcibiades , being an Alcmaeonid and thus a member of a family with old and strong connections to Sparta,

3942-441: The part of the metic, yet the child of an ex-slave metic apparently had the same status as a freeborn metic. Citizenship was very rarely granted to metics. More common was the special status of "equal rights" ( isoteleia ) under which they were freed from the usual liabilities. Metics, regardless of status, could participate in most religious rituals; only a few were reserved to citizens. The status divide between metic and citizen

4015-450: The political community but might be completely integrated into the social and economic life of the city. In the urbane scene that opens Plato 's Republic —the dialogue takes place in a metic household—the status of the speakers as citizen or metic is never mentioned. Metics typically shared the burdens of citizenship without any of its privileges. Like citizens, they had to perform military service and, if wealthy enough, were subject to

4088-592: The polity. The Babyca is now called Cheimarrus, and the Cnacion Oenus; but Aristotle says that Cnacion is a river, and Babyca a bridge." Another version of the rhetra is given by H. Michell: That is to say that after the people had been divided according to their different tribes ("phyles" and "obes"), they would welcome the new Lycurgan reforms The Spartans had no historical records, literature , or written laws , which were, according to tradition , expressly prohibited by an ordinance of Lycurgus, excluding

4161-437: The public roads (the meaning of that last term is unclear, and has been interpreted in a number of ways, including the possibility of "voyages"; that is, the royal duties in communicating with Delphi including the organization of the official missions, though that possibility was later deemed unlikely by the very researcher who proposed it. ). Civil cases were decided by the ephors , and criminal jurisdiction had been passed to

4234-556: The rich of Athens a matter of public display and pride) and cult must have given them a sense of involvement in the city, and of their value to it. Though notably, while Athenians tended to refer to metics by their name and deme of residence (the same democratic scheme used for citizens), on their tombstones freeborn metics who died in Athens preferred to name the cities from which they had come and of which they were citizens still. The term metic began to lose its distinctive legal status in 4th century BC, when metics were allowed to act in

4307-536: The social system of the city, it was necessary to have a force ready to oppose helot uprisings, which had occurred several times in the classical period. Spartiate males went through the brutal, and sometimes lethal, agoge and crypteia , from the age of seven to thirty, the age of full citizenship. From that age until they became too old to fight, they would live in their barracks, visiting their families (and, later, their wives) only when they could sneak out. Spartiate women, as well, were expected to remain athletic, since

4380-578: The special tax contributions ( eisphora ) and tax services ("liturgies", for example, paying for a warship or funding a tragic chorus) contributed by wealthy Athenians. Citizenship at Athens brought eligibility for numerous state payments such as jury and assembly pay, which could be significant to working people. During emergencies the city could distribute rations to citizens. None of these rights were available to metics. They were not permitted to own real estate in Attica , whether farm or house, unless granted

4453-490: The system and enlarge the Spartiate class, but these failed and the Spartiate class became too small to forcibly maintain the Spartan social structure. The helots gained their freedom in 370 BC , effectively eliminating the Spartiate way of life, though some aspects survived into the Roman period. Classical Spartan society was rigidly divided into several castes, each with assigned duties and privileges. The smallest of them, with

SECTION 60

#1732772184571

4526-474: The trade and commerce since Spartiates were forbidden from engaging in commercial activity. Spartiate-class people were expected to be supported by their kleroi and Helots and to abstain from any activities other than what is related to military conflict. All classes, including Helots, fought in the Spartan military. The Mothax class were particularly prominent as military leaders, and the Helots made up about 80% of

4599-401: The trade and commerce, since Spartiates were forbidden from engaging in commercial activity. Spartiate-class people were expected to be supported by their kleroi and Helots, and to do no work, except that related to military conflict. All classes, including Helots, fought in the Spartan military. The Mothax class were particularly prominent as military leaders, and the Helots made up about 80% of

4672-491: The wealthiest inhabitants of the city. As citizenship was a matter of inheritance and not of place of birth , a metic could be either an immigrant or the descendant of one. Regardless of how many generations of the family had lived in the city, metics did not become citizens unless the city chose to bestow citizenship on them as a gift. This was rarely done. From a cultural viewpoint such a resident could be completely "local" and indistinguishable from citizens. They had no role in

4745-484: The word was used in Persians in a non-technical sense, meaning nothing more than "immigrant". Rebecca Futo Kennedy dates the origin of metic status in Athens to the 460s, while Watson argues that the legal status of being a metic did not develop until 451 BC – the same year as Pericles introduced his citizenship law. One estimate of the population of Attica at the start of the Peloponnesian War in 431 BC found

4818-422: Was admitted as a trophimos and famously excelled in the agoge as well as otherwise (he was rumoured to have seduced one of the two queen consorts with his exceptional looks). The other exception was that a helot's son could be enrolled as syntrophoi (comrades, literally "the ones fed, or reared, together") if a Spartiate formally adopted him and paid his way. A free-born Spartan who had successfully completed

4891-443: Was an arrangement that was met when a community of villages combined to form the city of Sparta. Subsequently the two chiefs from the largest villages became kings. Another theory suggests that the two royal houses represent respectively the Spartan conquerors and their Achaean predecessors: those who hold this last view appeal to the words attributed by Herodotus (v. 72) to Cleomenes I : "I am no Dorian, but an Achaean"; although this

4964-414: Was attrition through the increasingly frequent wars that Sparta found itself embroiled in from the mid-5th century onward. Since Spartiates were required to marry late, birth rates were low, and it was difficult to replace losses from the class. Exacerbating that problem was the possibility of demotion from Spartiate status for several reasons, such as cowardice in battle and inability to pay for membership in

5037-407: Was not always clear. In the street no physical signs distinguished citizen from metic or slave. Sometimes the actual status a person had attained became a contested matter. Although local registers of citizens were kept, if one's claim to citizenship was challenged, the testimony of neighbours and the community was decisive. (In Lysias 23, a law court speech, a man presumed to be a metic claims to be

5110-423: Was often given the opportunity to seek asylum in other states. The ephors , chosen by popular election from the whole body of citizens, represented a democratic element in the constitution . After the ephors were introduced, they, together with the two kings, were the executive branch of the state. Ephors themselves had more power than anyone in Sparta, although the fact that they only stayed in power for

5183-482: Was recognized as unusual by both modern historians and contemporary non-Spartans. Spartiate-class people came to be barred from work by law and strong social norms and were supported by the helots. It was acceptable for Spartiates to work as armed forces. Spartiates spent a great deal of effort maintaining their power, facing repeated helot revolts. Aside from suppressing revolts, Spartiates trained as hoplites . They fought as such alongside helot forces; for instance, at

5256-511: Was revived as a xenophobic term for immigrants to France . This sense was popularized in the late 19th century by the nationalist writer Charles Maurras , who identified metics as one of the four primary constituents of the traitorous "Anti-France", along with Protestants, Jews, and Freemasons. This pejorative sense remains current in the French language, and has to some extent been reappropriated by French people of immigrant background. In 1969

5329-414: Was transferred to the ephors and to the gerousia . Despite eventually losing much of their power, the kings retained much respect in the religious sense. They were highly revered after death, with elaborate mourning rituals described as duties of both Spartiates and Perioeci. In addition, there tended to be extreme reluctance to execute them for crimes; even in cases of a king being convicted of treason, he

#570429