Continuum ( pl. : continua or continuums ) theories or models explain variation as involving gradual quantitative transitions without abrupt changes or discontinuities. In contrast, categorical theories or models explain variation using qualitatively different states.
31-433: A spectrum ( pl. : spectra or spectrums ) is a condition that is not limited to a specific set of values but can vary, without gaps, across a continuum . The word spectrum was first used scientifically in optics to describe the rainbow of colors in visible light after passing through a prism . As scientific understanding of light advanced, it came to apply to the entire electromagnetic spectrum . It thereby became
62-420: A generalized cohomology theory . In social science , economic spectrum is used to indicate the range of social class along some indicator of wealth or income. In political science , the term political spectrum refers to a system of classifying political positions in one or more dimensions, for example in a range including right wing and left wing. Continuum (measurement) In physics, for example,
93-409: A commonly used broad-spectrum antibiotic is ampicillin . An example of a narrow spectrum antibiotic is Dicloxacillin , which acts on beta-lactamase -producing Gram-positive bacteria such as Staphylococcus aureus . In psychiatry, the spectrum approach uses the term spectrum to describe a range of linked conditions, sometimes also extending to include singular symptoms and traits . For example,
124-499: A consideration of the external factors outside of the self. As the focus becomes more relaxed (but still prominent as it is a main part of the theory) research expands. Both the EPQ and Big Five approaches extensively use self-report questionnaires. The factors are intended to be orthogonal (uncorrelated), though there are often small positive correlations between factors. The five factor model in particular has been criticized for losing
155-403: A mapping of a range of magnitudes (wavelengths) to a range of qualities, which are the perceived "colors of the rainbow" and other properties which correspond to wavelengths that lie outside of the visible light spectrum. Spectrum has since been applied by analogy to topics outside optics. Thus, one might talk about the " spectrum of political opinion ", or the "spectrum of activity" of a drug, or
186-494: A person either has or does not have. In other traits, such as extraversion vs. introversion , each person is judged to lie along a spectrum. Trait theory suggests that some natural behaviours may give someone an advantage in a position of leadership. There are two approaches to define traits: as internal causal properties or as purely descriptive summaries. The internal causal definition states that traits influence our behaviours, leading us to do things in line with that trait. On
217-541: A person's behavior; their ruling passions/obsessions, such as a need for money, fame etc. By contrast, "central" traits such as honesty are characteristics found in some degree in every person – and finally "secondary" traits are those seen only in certain circumstances (such as particular likes or dislikes that a very close friend may know), which are included to provide a complete picture of human complexity. A wide variety of alternative theories and scales were later developed, including: Currently, two general approaches are
248-426: A personality trait or not) and non-dichotomous approaches. While the non-dichotomous approach allows for understanding that everyone lies somewhere on a particular personality dimension, the dichotomous (nominal categorical and ordinal) approaches only seek to confirm that a particular person either has or does not have a particular mental disorder. Expert witnesses particularly are trained to help courts in translating
279-462: A similar vein, the three-factor approach theorizes that neuroticism is mediated by levels of arousal in the limbic system and that individual differences arise because of variable activation thresholds between people. Therefore, highly neurotic people when presented with minor stressors, will exceed this threshold, whereas people low in neuroticism will not exceed normal activation levels, even when presented with large stressors. By contrast, proponents of
310-476: Is an inverse function of the serotonergic system , but he later revised this, linking it instead to the dopaminergic system . After examining thousands of personality measures and numerous personality trait frameworks, researchers have created "super-frameworks" that aim to encapsulate all personality traits into a single model (e.g., Pan-Hierarchical Five Factor Model). These models also sometimes identify measures that can be used to measure traits/constructs in
341-430: Is associated with sociability and positive affect , whereas neuroticism is associated with emotional instability and negative affect. Many lower-order factors, or facets , are similar between the two taxonomies. For instance, both approaches contain factors for sociability/gregariousness, for activity levels, and for assertiveness within the higher order factor extraversion. However, there are differences too. First,
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#1732765632496372-522: Is testimony about what was done by spectres of persons not present physically, or hearsay evidence about what ghosts or apparitions of Satan said. It was used to convict a number of persons of witchcraft at Salem, Massachusetts in the late 17th century. The word "spectrum" [Spektrum] was strictly used to designate a ghostly optical afterimage by Goethe in his Theory of Colors and Schopenhauer in On Vision and Colors . The prefix "spectro-"
403-406: Is used to form words relating to spectra. For example, a spectrometer is a device used to record spectra and spectroscopy is the use of a spectrometer for chemical analysis . In the physical sciences , the term spectrum was introduced first into optics by Isaac Newton in the 17th century, referring to the range of colors observed when white light was dispersed through a prism . Soon
434-404: The autism spectrum describes a range of conditions classified as neurodevelopmental disorders . In mathematics , the spectrum of a matrix is the multiset of the eigenvalues of the matrix. In functional analysis, the concept of the spectrum of a bounded operator is a generalization of the eigenvalue concept for matrices. In algebraic topology , a spectrum is an object representing
465-477: The limbic system in the brain as key components that mediate cortical arousal and emotional responses respectively. Eysenck advocates that extraverts have low levels of cortical arousal and introverts have high levels, leading extraverts to seek out more stimulation from socializing and being venturesome. Moreover, Eysenck surmised that there would be an optimal level of arousal, after which inhibition would occur and that this would be different for each person. In
496-481: The space-time continuum model describes space and time as part of the same continuum rather than as separate entities. A spectrum in physics, such as the electromagnetic spectrum , is often termed as either continuous (with energy at all wavelengths) or discrete (energy at only certain wavelengths). In contrast, quantum mechanics uses quanta , certain defined amounts (i.e. categorical amounts) which are distinguished from continuous amounts. A good introduction to
527-420: The " autism spectrum ". In these uses, values within a spectrum may not be associated with precisely quantifiable numbers or definitions. Such uses imply a broad range of conditions or behaviors grouped together and studied under a single title for ease of discussion. Nonscientific uses of the term spectrum are sometimes misleading. For instance, a single left–right spectrum of political opinion does not capture
558-447: The data into the legal (e.g. 'guilty' vs. 'not guilty') dichotomy , which apply to law , sociology and ethics . In linguistics , the range of dialects spoken over a geographical area that differ slightly between neighboring areas is known as a dialect continuum . A language continuum is a similar description for the merging of neighboring languages without a clear defined boundary. Examples of dialect or language continuums include
589-415: The five-factor approach assume a role of genetics and environment but offer no explicit causal explanation. Given this emphasis on biology in the three-factor approach, it would be expected that the third trait, psychoticism, would have a similar explanation. However, the causal properties of this state are not well defined. Eysenck has suggested that psychoticism is related to testosterone levels and
620-418: The full range of people's political beliefs. Political scientists use a variety of biaxial and multiaxial systems to more accurately characterize political opinion. In most modern usages of spectrum there is a unifying theme between the extremes at either end. This was not always true in older usage. In Latin , spectrum means "image" or " apparition ", including the meaning " spectre ". Spectral evidence
651-418: The individual. Gordon Allport's trait theory not only served as a foundational approach within personality psychology, but also is continued to be viewed and discussed by other disciplines such as anthropology because of how he approached culture within trait theory. Trait theory tends to focus on the individual over the situation in which they are in. This focus has relaxed within modern studies allowing for
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#1732765632496682-425: The most popular: Cultures are widely known and accepted as being different in varying degrees. This can make the study of personality difficult as meaning and the expression of traits may be different within cultural groups. Trait theory uses a hierarchy of traits in order to separate culture from the traits; it can be said the culture is ignored in order to focus on the individual traits and how they are connected to
713-477: The orthogonal structure between factors. Hans Eysenck has argued that fewer factors are superior to a larger number of partly related ones. Although these two approaches are comparable because of the use of factor analysis to construct hierarchical taxonomies, they differ in the organization and number of factors. Whatever the causes, psychoticism marks the two approaches apart, as the five factor model contains no such trait. Moreover, psychoticism, unlike any of
744-625: The other factors in either approach, does not fit a normal distribution curve . Indeed, scores are rarely high, thus skewing a normal distribution . However, when they are high, there is considerable overlap with psychiatric conditions such as antisocial and schizoid personality disorders . Similarly, high scorers on neuroticism are more susceptible to sleep and psychosomatic disorders. Five factor approaches can also predict future mental disorders. There are two higher-order factors that both taxonomies clearly share: extraversion and neuroticism . Both approaches broadly accept that extraversion
775-404: The other hand, traits as descriptive summaries are descriptions of our actions that do not try to infer causality. Gordon Allport was an early pioneer in the study of traits. This early work was viewed as the beginning of the modern psychological study of personality. He also referred to traits within his work as dispositions. In his approach, "cardinal" traits are those that dominate and shape
806-553: The philosophical issues involved is John Lane Bell 's essa in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy . A significant divide is provided by the law of excluded middle . It determines the divide between intuitionistic continua such as Brouwer 's and Lawvere 's, and classical ones such as Stevin 's and Robinson 's. Bell isolates two distinct historical conceptions of infinitesimal , one by Leibniz and one by Nieuwentijdt , and argues that Leibniz's conception
837-410: The term referred to a plot of light intensity or power as a function of frequency or wavelength , also known as a spectral density plot . Antibiotic spectrum of activity is a component of antibiotic classification . A broad-spectrum antibiotic is active against a wide range of bacteria, whereas a narrow-spectrum antibiotic is effective against specific families of bacteria. An example of
868-407: The three factor model's emphasis on fewer high-order factors. Although both major trait models are descriptive, only the three-factor model offers a detailed causal explanation. Eysenck suggests that different personality traits are caused by the properties of the brain , which themselves are the result of genetic factors. In particular, the three-factor model identifies the reticular system and
899-416: The three-factor approach contains nine lower-order factors and the five-factor approach has six. Eysenck's psychoticism factor incorporates some of the polar opposites of the lower order factors of openness, agreeableness and conscientiousness. A high scorer on tough-mindedness in psychoticism would score low on tender-mindedness in agreeableness. Most of the differences between the taxonomies stem from
930-817: The varieties of Italian or German; and the Romance languages , Arabic languages , or Bantu languages . Trait theory In psychology , trait theory (also called dispositional theory ) is an approach to the study of human personality . Trait theorists are primarily interested in the measurement of traits , which can be defined as habitual patterns of behavior, thought , and emotion . According to this perspective, traits are aspects of personality that are relatively stable over time, differ across individuals (e.g. some people are outgoing whereas others are not), are relatively consistent over situations, and influence behaviour. Traits are in contrast to states , which are more transitory dispositions. Some traits are something
961-861: Was implemented in Robinson's hyperreal continuum, whereas Nieuwentijdt's, in Lawvere's smooth infinitesimal analysis , characterized by the presence of nilsquare infinitesimals: "It may be said that Leibniz recognized the need for the first, but not the second type of infinitesimal and Nieuwentijdt, vice versa. It is of interest to note that Leibnizian infinitesimals (differentials) are realized in nonstandard analysis , and nilsquare infinitesimals in smooth infinitesimal analysis ". In social sciences in general, psychology and psychiatry included, data about differences between individuals, like any data, can be collected and measured using different levels of measurement . Those levels include dichotomous (a person either has