... it is beneath the dignity of excellent men to waste their time in calculation when any peasant could do the work just as accurately with the aid of a machine.
72-624: The stepped reckoner or Leibniz calculator was a mechanical calculator invented by the German mathematician Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (started in 1673, when he presented a wooden model to the Royal Society of London and completed in 1694). The name comes from the translation of the German term for its operating mechanism, Staffelwalze , meaning "stepped drum". It was the first calculator that could perform all four basic arithmetic operations . Its intricate precision gearwork, however,
144-541: A slide rule . Most mechanical calculators were comparable in size to small desktop computers and have been rendered obsolete by the advent of the electronic calculator and the digital computer . Surviving notes from Wilhelm Schickard in 1623 reveal that he designed and had built the earliest of the modern attempts at mechanizing calculation. His machine was composed of two sets of technologies: first an abacus made of Napier's bones , to simplify multiplications and divisions first described six years earlier in 1617, and for
216-415: A Rechenuhr (calculating clock). The machine was designed to assist in all the four basic functions of arithmetic (addition, subtraction, multiplication and division). Amongst its uses, Schickard suggested it would help in the laborious task of calculating astronomical tables. The machine could add and subtract six-digit numbers, and indicated an overflow of this capacity by ringing a bell. The adding machine in
288-410: A calculator; 90-tooth gears are likely to be found in the gas pump. Practical gears in the computing parts of a calculator cannot have 90 teeth. They would be either too big, or too delicate. Given that nine ratios per column implies significant complexity, a Marchant contains a few hundred individual gears in all, many in its accumulator. Basically, the accumulator dial has to rotate 36 degrees (1/10 of
360-565: A comptometer type machine, the Anita Mk VII from Sumlock comptometer Ltd., became the first desktop mechanical calculator to receive an all-electronic calculator engine, creating the link in between these two industries and marking the beginning of its decline. The production of mechanical calculators came to a stop in the middle of the 1970s closing an industry that had lasted for 120 years. Charles Babbage designed two new kinds of mechanical calculators, which were so big that they required
432-540: A display wheel, an input wheel and an intermediate wheel. During a carry transfer all these wheels meshed with the wheels of the digit receiving the carry. Blaise Pascal invented a mechanical calculator with a sophisticated carry mechanism in 1642. After three years of effort and 50 prototypes he introduced his calculator to the public. He built twenty of these machines in the following ten years. This machine could add and subtract two numbers directly and multiply and divide by repetition. Since, unlike Schickard's machine,
504-432: A few hundreds more from two licensed arithmometer clone makers (Burkhardt, Germany, 1878 and Layton, UK, 1883). Felt and Tarrant, the only other competitor in true commercial production, had sold 100 comptometers in three years. The 19th century also saw the designs of Charles Babbage calculating machines, first with his difference engine , started in 1822, which was the first automatic calculator since it continuously used
576-502: A finished machine. Regrettably it was destroyed in a fire either whilst still incomplete, or in any case before delivery. Schickard abandoned his project soon after. He and his entire family were wiped out in 1635 by bubonic plague during the Thirty Years' War. Schickard's machine used clock wheels which were made stronger and were therefore heavier, to prevent them from being damaged by the force of an operator input. Each digit used
648-598: A frame, as in the abacus. This instrument was probably invented by the Semitic races and later adopted in India, whence it spread westward throughout Europe and eastward to China and Japan. After the development of the abacus, no further advances were made until John Napier devised his numbering rods, or Napier's Bones , in 1617. Various forms of the Bones appeared, some approaching the beginning of mechanical computation, but it
720-449: A fully effective calculating machine without additional innovation with the technological capabilities of the 17th century. because their gears would jam when a carry had to be moved several places along the accumulator. The only 17th-century calculating clocks that have survived to this day do not have a machine-wide carry mechanism and therefore cannot be called fully effective mechanical calculators. A much more successful calculating clock
792-402: A gear, sector, or some similar device moves the accumulator by the number of gear teeth that corresponds to the digit being added or subtracted – three teeth changes the position by a count of three. The great majority of basic calculator mechanisms move the accumulator by starting, then moving at a constant speed, and stopping. In particular, stopping is critical, because to obtain fast operation,
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#1732773132294864-445: A great number of businesses. "Eighty four companies sold cash registers between 1888 and 1895, only three survived for any length of time". In 1890, 6 years after John Patterson started NCR Corporation , 20,000 machines had been sold by his company alone against a total of roughly 3,500 for all genuine calculators combined. By 1900, NCR had built 200,000 cash registers and there were more companies manufacturing them, compared to
936-450: A mechanical calculator where all the wheels are independent but are also linked together by the rules of arithmetic. The 17th century marked the beginning of the history of mechanical calculators, as it saw the invention of its first machines, including Pascal's calculator , in 1642. Blaise Pascal had invented a machine which he presented as being able to perform computations that were previously thought to be only humanly possible. In
1008-430: A nine-ratio "preselector transmission" with its output spur gear at the top of the machine's body; that gear engages the accumulator gearing. When one tries to work out the numbers of teeth in such a transmission, a straightforward approach leads one to consider a mechanism like that in mechanical gasoline pump registers, used to indicate the total price. However, this mechanism is seriously bulky, and utterly impractical for
1080-485: A sense, Pascal's invention was premature, in that the mechanical arts in his time were not sufficiently advanced to enable his machine to be made at an economic price, with the accuracy and strength needed for reasonably long use. This difficulty was not overcome until well on into the nineteenth century, by which time also a renewed stimulus to invention was given by the need for many kinds of calculation more intricate than those considered by Pascal. The 17th century also saw
1152-607: A single operation, as on a conventional adding machine, but multiplication and division were accomplished by repeated mechanical additions and subtractions. Friden made a calculator that also provided square roots , basically by doing division, but with added mechanism that automatically incremented the number in the keyboard in a systematic fashion. The last of the mechanical calculators were likely to have short-cut multiplication, and some ten-key, serial-entry types had decimal-point keys. However, decimal-point keys required significant internal added complexity, and were offered only in
1224-447: A turn) for a [1], and 324 degrees (9/10 of a turn) for a [9], not allowing for incoming carries. At some point in the gearing, one tooth needs to pass for a [1], and nine teeth for a [9]. There is no way to develop the needed movement from a driveshaft that rotates one revolution per cycle with few gears having practical (relatively small) numbers of teeth. University of G%C3%B6ttingen Too Many Requests If you report this error to
1296-497: A wooden model to the Royal Society of London on 1 February 1673 and received much encouragement. In a letter of 26 March 1673 to Johann Friedrich , where he mentioned the presentation in London, Leibniz described the purpose of the "arithmetic machine" as making calculations " leicht, geschwind, gewiß " [ sic ], i.e. easy, fast, and reliable. Leibniz also added that theoretically the numbers calculated might be as large as desired, if
1368-433: Is found in older processor instruction set architectures , section to the rear, which can hold 16 decimal digits, and an 8-digit input section to the front. The input section has 8 dials with knobs to set the operand number, a telephone-like dial to the right to set the multiplier digit, and a crank on the front to perform the calculation. The result appears in the 16 windows on the rear accumulator section. The input section
1440-428: Is mounted on rails and can be moved along the accumulator section with a crank on the left end that turns a worm gear , to change the alignment of operand digits with accumulator digits. There is also a tens-carry indicator and a control to set the machine to zero. The machine can: Addition or subtraction is performed in a single step, with a turn of the crank. Multiplication and division are performed digit by digit on
1512-413: Is the one, as I have already stated, that I used many times, hidden in the plain sight of an infinity of persons and which is still in operating order. Nevertheless, while always improving on it, I found reasons to change its design... When, several years ago, I saw for the first time an instrument which, when carried, automatically records the numbers of steps by a pedestrian, it occurred to me at once that
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#17327731322941584-465: Is this type; the crank is vertical, on its right side. Later on, some of these mechanisms were operated by electric motors and reduction gearing that operated a crank and connecting rod to convert rotary motion to reciprocating. The latter type, rotary, had at least one main shaft that made one [or more] continuous revolution[s], one addition or subtraction per turn. Numerous designs, notably European calculators, had handcranks, and locks to ensure that
1656-416: Is unworthy of excellent men to lose hours like slaves in the labour of calculation which could safely be relegated to anyone else if machines were used." Schickard, Pascal and Leibniz were inevitably inspired by the role of clockwork which was highly celebrated in the seventeenth century. However, simple-minded application of interlinked gears was insufficient for any of their purposes. Schickard introduced
1728-466: The Antikythera mechanism , a seemingly out of place , unique, geared astronomical clock , followed more than a millennium later by early mechanical clocks , geared astrolabes and followed in the 15th century by pedometers . These machines were all made of toothed gears linked by some sort of carry mechanisms. These machines always produce identical results for identical initial settings unlike
1800-500: The Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz Library ever since. The machine performs multiplication by repeated addition, and division by repeated subtraction. The basic operation performed is to add (or subtract) the operand number to the accumulator register, as many times as desired (to subtract, the operating crank is turned in the opposite direction). The number of additions (or subtractions) is controlled by
1872-579: The Leibniz wheel . It is unclear how many different variants of the calculator were made. Some sources, such as the drawing to the right, show a 12-digit version. This section describes the surviving 16-digit prototype in Hanover . The machine is about 67 cm (26 inches) long, made of polished brass and steel, mounted in an oak case. It consists of two attached parallel parts: an accumulator , which can be thought of as an accumulator register which
1944-441: The "Thomas/Payen" arithmometer company that had just sold around 3,300 and Burroughs had only sold 1,400 machines. Two different classes of mechanisms had become established by this time, reciprocating and rotary. The former type of mechanism was operated typically by a limited-travel hand crank; some internal detailed operations took place on the pull, and others on the release part of a complete cycle. The illustrated 1914 machine
2016-660: The Friden and Monroe was a modified Leibniz wheel (better known, perhaps informally, in the USA as a "stepped drum" or "stepped reckoner"). The Friden had an elementary reversing drive between the body of the machine and the accumulator dials, so its main shaft always rotated in the same direction. The Swiss MADAS was similar. The Monroe, however, reversed direction of its main shaft to subtract. The earliest Marchants were pinwheel machines, but most of them were remarkably sophisticated rotary types. They ran at 1,300 addition cycles per minute if
2088-468: The Pascaline dials could only rotate in one direction zeroing it after each calculation required the operator to dial in all 9s and then ( method of re-zeroing ) propagate a carry right through the machine. This suggests that the carry mechanism would have proved itself in practice many times over. This is a testament to the quality of the Pascaline because none of the 17th and 18th century criticisms of
2160-488: The USA included Friden , Monroe , and SCM/Marchant . These devices were motor-driven, and had movable carriages where results of calculations were displayed by dials. Nearly all keyboards were full – each digit that could be entered had its own column of nine keys, 1..9, plus a column-clear key, permitting entry of several digits at once. (See the illustration below of a Marchant Figurematic.) One could call this parallel entry, by way of contrast with ten-key serial entry that
2232-471: The [+] bar is held down. Others were limited to 600 cycles per minute, because their accumulator dials started and stopped for every cycle; Marchant dials moved at a steady and proportional speed for continuing cycles. Most Marchants had a row of nine keys on the extreme right, as shown in the photo of the Figurematic. These simply made the machine add for the number of cycles corresponding to the number on
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2304-643: The accumulator needs to move quickly. Variants of Geneva drives typically block overshoot (which, of course, would create wrong results). However, two different basic mechanisms, the Mercedes-Euklid and the Marchant, move the dials at speeds corresponding to the digit being added or subtracted; a [1] moves the accumulator the slowest, and a [9], the fastest. In the Mercedes-Euklid, a long slotted lever, pivoted at one end, moves nine racks ("straight gears") endwise by distances proportional to their distance from
2376-413: The accumulator windows. Repeated subtractions are done similarly except the multiplier dial turns in the opposite direction, so a second set of digits, in red, are used. To perform a single addition or subtraction, the multiplier is simply set at one. To multiply by numbers over 9: In this way, the operand can be multiplied by as large a number as desired, although the result is limited by the capacity of
2448-426: The accumulator. To divide by a multidigit divisor, this process is used: It can be seen that these procedures are just mechanized versions of long division and multiplication . Mechanical calculator A mechanical calculator , or calculating machine , is a mechanical device used to perform the basic operations of arithmetic automatically, or (historically) a simulation such as an analog computer or
2520-437: The base was primarily provided to assist in the difficult task of adding or multiplying two multi-digit numbers. To this end an ingenious arrangement of rotatable Napier's bones were mounted on it. It even had an additional "memory register" to record intermediate calculations. Whilst Schickard noted that the adding machine was working, his letters mention that he had asked a professional, a clockmaker named Johann Pfister, to build
2592-443: The completion of the cycle, the dials would be misaligned like the pointers in a traditional watt-hour meter. However, as they came up out of the dip, a constant-lead disc cam realigned them by way of a (limited-travel) spur-gear differential. As well, carries for lower orders were added in by another, planetary differential. (The machine shown has 39 differentials in its [20-digit] accumulator!) In any mechanical calculator, in effect,
2664-433: The cranks were returned to exact positions once a turn was complete. The first half of the 20th century saw the gradual development of the mechanical calculator mechanism. The Dalton adding-listing machine introduced in 1902 was the first of its type to use only ten keys, and became the first of many different models of "10-key add-listers" manufactured by many companies. In 1948 the cylindrical Curta calculator, which
2736-421: The entire arithmetic could be subjected to a similar kind of machinery so that not only counting but also addition and subtraction, multiplication and division could be accomplished by a suitably arranged machine easily, promptly, and with sure results. The principle of the clock (input wheels and display wheels added to a clock like mechanism) for a direct-entry calculating machine couldn't be implemented to create
2808-593: The first machine of its kind, based on the architecture of the analytical engine; when the machine was finished some hailed it as "Babbage's dream come true". The desire to economize time and mental effort in arithmetical computations, and to eliminate human liability to error , is probably as old as the science of arithmetic itself. This desire has led to the design and construction of a variety of aids to calculation, beginning with groups of small objects, such as pebbles, first used loosely, later as counters on ruled boards, and later still as beads mounted on wires fixed in
2880-505: The first operand) and the first to have a movable carriage. Leibniz built two Stepped Reckoners, one in 1694 and one in 1706. Only the machine built in 1694 is known to exist; it was rediscovered at the end of the 19th century having been forgotten in an attic in the University of Göttingen . In 1893, the German calculating machine inventor Arthur Burkhardt was asked to put Leibniz's machine in operating condition if possible. His report
2952-488: The idea of doing the work mechanically, and developed a design appropriate for this purpose; showing herein the same combination of pure science and mechanical genius that characterized his whole life. But it was one thing to conceive and design the machine, and another to get it made and put into use. Here were needed those practical gifts that he displayed later in his inventions... In 1672, Gottfried Leibniz started working on adding direct multiplication to what he understood
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3024-401: The industrial production of the more successful Odhner Arithmometer in 1890. The comptometer , introduced in 1887, was the first machine to use a keyboard that consisted of columns of nine keys (from 1 to 9) for each digit. The Dalton adding machine, manufactured in 1902, was the first to have a 10 key keyboard. Electric motors were used on some mechanical calculators from 1901. In 1961,
3096-601: The invention of some very powerful tools to aid arithmetic calculations like Napier's bones , logarithmic tables and the slide rule which, for their ease of use by scientists in multiplying and dividing, ruled over and impeded the use and development of mechanical calculators until the production release of the arithmometer in the mid 19th century. In 1623 and 1624 Wilhelm Schickard , in two letters that he sent to Johannes Kepler , reported his design and construction of what he referred to as an “arithmeticum organum” (“arithmetical instrument”), which would later be described as
3168-443: The key, and then shifted the carriage one place. Even nine add cycles took only a short time. In a Marchant, near the beginning of a cycle, the accumulator dials moved downward "into the dip", away from the openings in the cover. They engaged drive gears in the body of the machine, which rotated them at speeds proportional to the digit being fed to them, with added movement (reduced 10:1) from carries created by dials to their right. At
3240-689: The last designs to be made. Handheld mechanical calculators such as the 1948 Curta continued to be used until they were displaced by electronic calculators in the 1970s. Typical European four-operation machines use the Odhner mechanism, or variations of it. This kind of machine included the Original Odhner , Brunsviga and several following imitators, starting from Triumphator, Thales, Walther, Facit up to Toshiba. Although most of these were operated by handcranks, there were motor-driven versions. Hamann calculators externally resembled pinwheel machines, but
3312-553: The lever's pivot. Each rack has a drive pin that is moved by the slot. The rack for [1] is closest to the pivot, of course. For each keyboard digit, a sliding selector gear, much like that in the Leibniz wheel, engages the rack that corresponds to the digit entered. Of course, the accumulator changes either on the forward or reverse stroke, but not both. This mechanism is notably simple and relatively easy to manufacture. The Marchant, however, has, for every one of its ten columns of keys,
3384-410: The machine mentioned a problem with the carry mechanism and yet it was fully tested on all the machines, by their resets, all the time. Pascal's invention of the calculating machine, just three hundred years ago, was made while he was a youth of nineteen. He was spurred to it by seeing the burden of arithmetical labour involved in his father's official work as supervisor of taxes at Rouen. He conceived
3456-530: The mechanical calculator. Co-opted into his father's labour as tax collector in Rouen, Pascal designed the calculator to help in the large amount of tedious arithmetic required; it was called Pascal's Calculator or Pascaline. In 1672, Gottfried Leibniz started designing an entirely new machine called the Stepped Reckoner . It used a stepped drum, built by and named after him, the Leibniz wheel ,
3528-456: The mechanical flaws of the stepped reckoner, it suggested possibilities to future calculator builders. The operating mechanism, invented by Leibniz, called the stepped cylinder or Leibniz wheel , was used in many calculating machines for 200 years, and into the 1970s with the Curta hand calculator. The stepped reckoner was based on a gear mechanism that Leibniz invented and that is now called
3600-560: The mechanical part, it had a dialed pedometer to perform additions and subtractions. A study of the surviving notes shows a machine that would have jammed after a few entries on the same dial, and that it could be damaged if a carry had to be propagated over a few digits (like adding 1 to 999). Schickard abandoned his project in 1624 and never mentioned it again until his death 11 years later in 1635. Two decades after Schickard's supposedly failed attempt, in 1642, Blaise Pascal decisively solved these particular problems with his invention of
3672-404: The multiplier dial. It operates like a telephone dial , with ten holes in its circumference numbered 0–9. To multiply by a single digit, 0–9, a knob-shaped stylus is inserted in the appropriate hole in the dial, and the crank is turned. The multiplier dial turns clockwise, the machine performing one addition for each hole, until the stylus strikes a stop at the top of the dial. The result appears in
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#17327731322943744-624: The multiplier or divisor digits, in a procedure equivalent to the familiar long multiplication and long division procedures taught in school. Sequences of these operations can be performed on the number in the accumulator; for example, it can calculate roots by a series of divisions and additions. Leibniz got the idea for a calculating machine in 1672 in Paris, from a pedometer . Later he learned about Blaise Pascal 's machine when he read Pascal's Pensées . He concentrated on expanding Pascal's mechanism so it could multiply and divide. He presented
3816-403: The old problems of disorganization and dishonesty in business transactions. It was a pure adding machine coupled with a printer , a bell and a two-sided display that showed the paying party and the store owner, if he wanted to, the amount of money exchanged for the current transaction. The cash register was easy to use and, unlike genuine mechanical calculators, was needed and quickly adopted by
3888-413: The operator to decide when to stop a repeated subtraction at each index, and therefore these machines were only providing a help in dividing, like an abacus . Both pinwheel calculators and Leibniz wheel calculators were built with a few unsuccessful attempts at their commercialization. Luigi Torchi invented the first direct multiplication machine in 1834. This was also the second key-driven machine in
3960-410: The power of a steam engine to operate, and that were too sophisticated to be built in his lifetime. The first one was an automatic mechanical calculator, his difference engine , which could automatically compute and print mathematical tables. In 1855, Georg Scheutz became the first of a handful of designers to succeed at building a smaller and simpler model of his difference engine. The second one
4032-463: The results of the previous operation for the next one, and second with his analytical engine , which was the first programmable calculator, using Jacquard's cards to read program and data, that he started in 1834, and which gave the blueprint of the mainframe computers built in the middle of the 20th century. The cash register, invented by the American saloonkeeper James Ritty in 1879, addressed
4104-422: The setting lever positioned a cam that disengaged a drive pawl when the dial had moved far enough. Although Dalton introduced in 1902 first 10-key printing adding (two operations, the other being subtraction) machine, these features were not present in computing (four operations) machines for many decades. Facit-T (1932) was the first 10-key computing machine sold in large numbers. Olivetti Divisumma-14 (1948)
4176-406: The size of the machine was adjusted; quote: " eine zahl von einer ganzen Reihe Ziphern, sie sey so lang sie wolle (nach proportion der größe der Machine) " [ sic ]. In English: "a number consisting of a whole series of figures, as long as it may be (in proportion to the size of the machine)". His first preliminary brass machine was built between 1674 and 1685. His so-called older machine
4248-408: The use of a single toothed "mutilated gear" to enable the carry to take place. Pascal improved on that with his famous weighted sautoir. Leibniz went even further in relation to the ability to use a moveable carriage to perform multiplication more efficiently, albeit at the expense of a fully working carry mechanism. ...I devised a third which works by springs and which has a very simple design. This
4320-418: The world, following that of James White (1822). The mechanical calculator industry started in 1851 Thomas de Colmar released his simplified Arithmomètre , which was the first machine that could be used daily in an office environment. For 40 years, the arithmometer was the only mechanical calculator available for sale and was sold all over the world. By 1890, about 2,500 arithmometers had been sold plus
4392-526: Was a programmable mechanical calculator, his analytical engine , which Babbage started to design in 1834; "in less than two years he had sketched out many of the salient features of the modern computer . A crucial step was the adoption of a punched card system derived from the Jacquard loom " making it infinitely programmable. In 1937, Howard Aiken convinced IBM to design and build the ASCC/Mark I ,
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#17327731322944464-404: Was also the first to promote the idea of an Pinwheel calculator . Thomas' arithmometer , the first commercially successful machine, was manufactured two hundred years later in 1851; it was the first mechanical calculator strong enough and reliable enough to be used daily in an office environment. For forty years the arithmometer was the only type of mechanical calculator available for sale until
4536-521: Was built between 1686 and 1694. The 'younger machine', the surviving machine, was built from 1690 to 1720. In 1775 the 'younger machine' was sent to the University of Göttingen for repair, and was forgotten until 1876 when a crew of workmen found it in an attic room of a university building in Göttingen . It was returned to Hanover in 1880. From 1894 to 1896 Artur Burkhardt, founder of a major German calculator company restored it, and it has been kept at
4608-527: Was built by the Italian Giovanni Poleni in the 18th century and was a two-motion calculating clock (the numbers are inscribed first and then they are processed). The 18th century saw the first mechanical calculator that could perform a multiplication automatically; designed and built by Giovanni Poleni in 1709 and made of wood, it was the first successful calculating clock. For all the machines built in this century, division still required
4680-565: Was commonplace in mechanical adding machines, and is now universal in electronic calculators. (Nearly all Friden calculators, as well as some rotary (German) Diehls had a ten-key auxiliary keyboard for entering the multiplier when doing multiplication.) Full keyboards generally had ten columns, although some lower-cost machines had eight. Most machines made by the three companies mentioned did not print their results, although other companies, such as Olivetti , did make printing calculators. In these machines, addition and subtraction were performed in
4752-403: Was compact enough to be held in one hand, was introduced after being developed by Curt Herzstark in 1938. This was an extreme development of the stepped-gear calculating mechanism. It subtracted by adding complements; between the teeth for addition were teeth for subtraction. From the early 1900s through the 1960s, mechanical calculators dominated the desktop computing market. Major suppliers in
4824-421: Was favorable except for the sequence in the carry. Leibniz had invented his namesake wheel and the principle of a two-motion calculator, but after forty years of development he wasn't able to produce a machine that was fully operational; this makes Pascal's calculator the only working mechanical calculator in the 17th century. Leibniz was also the first person to describe a pinwheel calculator . He once said "It
4896-429: Was not until 1642 that Blaise Pascal gave us the first mechanical calculating machine in the sense that the term is used today. A short list of other precursors to the mechanical calculator must include a group of mechanical analog computers which, once set, are only modified by the continuous and repeated action of their actuators (crank handle, weight, wheel, water...). Before the common era , there are odometers and
4968-571: Was somewhat beyond the fabrication technology of the time; mechanical problems, in addition to a design flaw in the carry mechanism, prevented the machines from working reliably. Two prototypes were built; today only one survives in the National Library of Lower Saxony ( Niedersächsische Landesbibliothek ) in Hanover , Germany. Several later replicas are on display, such as the one at the Deutsches Museum , Munich . Despite
5040-684: Was the first computing machine with both printer and a 10-key keyboard. Full-keyboard machines, including motor-driven ones, were also built until the 1960s. Among the major manufacturers were Mercedes-Euklid, Archimedes, and MADAS in Europe; in the USA, Friden, Marchant, and Monroe were the principal makers of rotary calculators with carriages. Reciprocating calculators (most of which were adding machines, many with integral printers) were made by Remington Rand and Burroughs, among others. All of these were key-set. Felt & Tarrant made Comptometers, as well as Victor, which were key-driven. The basic mechanism of
5112-407: Was the first two-motion calculator, the first to use cursors (creating a memory of the first operand) and the first to have a movable carriage. Leibniz built two Stepped Reckoners, one in 1694 and one in 1706. The Leibniz wheel was used in many calculating machines for 200 years, and into the 1970s with the Curta hand calculator, until the advent of the electronic calculator in the mid-1970s. Leibniz
5184-408: Was the working of Pascal's calculator. However, it is doubtful that he had ever fully seen the mechanism and the method could not have worked because of the lack of reversible rotation in the mechanism. Accordingly, he eventually designed an entirely new machine called the Stepped Reckoner ; it used his Leibniz wheels , was the first two-motion calculator, the first to use cursors (creating a memory of
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