43-558: Sthananga Sutra (Sanskrit: Sthānāṅgasūtra ; Prakrit: Ṭhāṇaṃgasutta ) (c. 3rd-4th century BCE) forms part of the first eleven Angas of the Jaina Canon which have survived despite the bad effects of this Hundavasarpini kala as per the Śvetāmbara belief. This is the reason why, under the leadership of Devardhigani Ksamasramana , the eleven Angas of the Śvetāmbara canon were formalised and reduced to writing. This took place at Valabhi 993 years after Māhavīra's nirvana . (466 CE). In
86-444: A battle, lasting for a day. The defeated king would acknowledge the supremacy of the victorious king. The defeated king might sometimes be asked to give a tribute to the victorious king. Such tribute would be collected only once, not on a periodic basis. The defeated king, in most cases, would be free to rule his own kingdom, without maintaining any contact with the victorious king. There was no annexation of one kingdom by another. Often
129-424: A form of republicanism) and succession was hereditary. The head of a kingdom was a king ( raja ). A chief priest ( purohita ) and a commander of the army ( senani ) who would assist the king. There were also two other political bodies: the ( samiti ), thought to be a council of elders and the sabhā , a general assembly of the entire people. Often rivers formed the boundaries of two neighboring kingdoms, as
172-530: A generation. The Kuru clan of Kings was very successful in governing throughout North India with their numerous kingdoms, which were formed after each successive generation. Similarly, the Yadava clan of kings formed numerous kingdoms in Central India. Parts of western India were dominated by tribes who had a slightly different culture, considered non-Vedic by the mainstream Vedic culture prevailing in
215-490: A main city that served as its capital. For example, the capital of Pandava's kingdom was Indraprastha and the Kaurava's kingdom was Hastinapura . Ahichatra was the capital of Northern Panchala whereas Kampilya was the capital of Southern Panchala. Kosala had its capital at Ayodhya . Apart from the main city or capital, where the palace of the ruling king was situated, there were small towns and villages spread throughout
258-456: A memory aid for an ācārya, so that he might not forget the varied subject matters he wants to teach. With this work he has a kind of guideline for his lessons at hand and can easily reply to questions asked by his disciples. Importance of Sthānāngasūtra can be gauged from the fact that Vyavahāra Chedasūtra (10, 20-34) mentions that it is suitable to be studied only by those ascetics, who have at least eight years standing in monkhood. Furthermore it
301-720: A mention in the later texts. Misra theorizes that these smaller janas were conquered by and assimilated into the larger janas. Janapadas were gradually dissolved around 500 BCE. Their disestablishment can be attributed to the rise of imperial powers (such as Magadha ) in Northern India, as well as foreign invasions (such as those by the Persians and the Greeks ) in the north-western South Asia. The Janapada were highest political unit in Northern India during this period; these polities were usually monarchical (though some followed
344-425: A military general ( senapati ) conducted these campaigns on behalf of his king. A military campaign and tribute collection was often associated with a great sacrifice (like Rajasuya or Ashvamedha ) conducted in the kingdom of the campaigning king. The defeated king also was invited to attend these sacrifice ceremonies, as a friend and ally. New kingdoms were formed when a major clan produced more than one king in
387-456: Is evidence of prevalence of democracy in ancient India. V. B. Misra notes that the contemporary society was divided into the four varnas (besides the avarna or outcastes), and the Kshatriya ruling class had all the political rights. Not all the citizens in a janapada had political rights. Based on Gautama's Dharmasutra , Jayaswal theorized that the low-caste shudras could be members of
430-464: Is from the forest") after being assumed to be Vindhyaketu's daughter, was brought to Vatsa to become servant of Vāsavadattā, and later married Udayana after the Āṅgeya chamberlain recognised her as once Udayana had defeated Kaliṅga. Aṅga's prosperity ended when, in the middle of the 6th century BCE, the Māgadhī crown prince Bimbisāra Śreṇika avenged his father's defeat against Aṅga by defeating and killing
473-500: Is on Karananuyoga, this unique āgama serves as a huge anthology to all branches of Jaina knowledge. Because all topics, terms and things are thought of as fitting well with number one, number two, and so on, up to number ten, and because they are listed accordingly, the word "sthāna" in the titles of the ten chapters as well as in the title of our work means "place". The Sthānāngasūtra is an anga-text in which "terms and things" are listed in their "right place". Sthānānga maybe considered as
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#1732773361682516-519: Is stated that only a monk who knows the Sthānānga by heart may attain the position of an ācārya, which entitles him to supervise the monks and nuns in regard to their conduct and study. The first sūtra in the Sthānānga goes as follows: sūyam me āusam tenam Bhagavayā evam akkhāyam - "I have heard, o Long-Lived one, that the Venerable (i.e. Mahāvīra) has said thus." From this it can be gauged that as per
559-509: The Vidhura Paṇḍita Jātaka described the Māgadhī capital of Rājagaha as a city of Aṅga. This conquest brought Aṅga in direct contact with Magadha's western neighbour Vatsa , whose king Śatānīka attacked the Āṅgeya capital of Campā out of fear of Dadhivāhana's expansionism. Dadhivāhana instead sought friendly relations with Vatsa, and he gave his daughter in marriage to Śatānīka's son, Udayana . After Śatānīka's death from dysentery at
602-511: The Aitareya (8.14.4) and Shatapatha (13.4.2.17) Brahmana texts. In the Vedic samhitas , the term jana denotes a tribe, whose members believed in a shared ancestry. The janas were headed by a king ( raja ). The council (s amiti) was a common assembly of the jana members, and had the power to elect or dethrone the king. The s abha was a smaller assembly of wise elders, who advised
645-707: The Kuru and Panchala kingdoms. Similarly, there were some tribes in the eastern regions of India considered to be in this category. Tribes with non-Vedic culture — especially those of barbaric nature — were collectively termed as Mleccha . Very little was mentioned in the ancient Indian literature about the kingdoms to the North, beyond the Himalayas . China was mentioned as a kingdom known as Cina , often grouped with Mleccha kingdoms. The Vedas mention five sub-divisions of ancient India: The Vedic literature mentions
688-472: The Mahabharata (I.104.53–54) and Puranic literature, Aṅga was named after Prince Anga, the founder of the kingdom, and the son of Vali, who had no sons. So, he requested the sage, Dirghatamas, to bless him with sons. The sage is said to have begotten five sons through his wife, the queen Sudesna. The princes were named Aṅga, Vaṅga , Kaliṅga , Sumha and Pundra . The Ramayana (1.23.14) narrates
731-734: The Vedic period in the Indian subcontinent . The Vedic period reaches from the late Bronze Age into the Iron Age : from about 1500 BCE to the 6th century BCE. With the rise of sixteen Mahajanapadas ("great janapadas"), most of the states were annexed by more powerful neighbours, although some remained independent. The Sanskrit term janapada is a tatpurusha compound term, composed of two words: jana and padna . Jana means "go" or "do your business" (cf. Latin cognate genus , English cognate kin ). The word pada means "foot" (cf. Latin cognate pedis ); from its earliest attestation,
774-708: The "sixteen great nations" in Buddhist texts like the Anguttara Nikaya , Aṅga also finds mention in the Jain Vyakhyaprajnapti 's list of ancient janapadas . Aṅga proper was located between the Champā river to the west and the Rajmahal hills to the east. However, at times, its territories did extend to the sea in the south, or included Magadha in the west. The capital of Aṅga, named Campā,
817-456: The 11th–12th century, Anga region was under the control of Varman dynasty . Belava copperplate of Bhojavarman mentions that Jatavarman under the leadership of his father Vajravarman conquered Anga and established the rule of his family. Janapadas The Janapadas ( lit. ' Foothold of the people ' ) ( pronounced [dʑɐnɐpɐdɐ] ) (c. 1100–600 BCE) were the realms , republics (ganapada) and kingdoms (sāmarājya) of
860-639: The Aryan ritual of Aindra mahābhiśeka . Vedic literature such as the Baudhāyana Dharmasūtra nevertheless listed the Āṅgeyas with peoples described as being of "mixed origin." Aṅga was a powerful kingdom at the time of the Aitareya Brāhmaṇa , which mentions the "world conquest" of one of the Āṅgeya kings. The Āṅgeya capital of Campā itself was counted until the time of the Buddha's death among
903-485: The Janapadas were administered by the following assemblies in addition to the king: Some historians have also theorized that there was a common assembly called the "Paura-Janapada", but others such as Ram Sharan Sharma disagree with this theory. The existence of Paura and Janapada itself is a controversial matter. Indian nationalist historians such as K. P. Jayaswal have argued that the existence of such assemblies
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#1732773361682946-474: The Licchavika capital of Vesālī a bastion of Jainism, and the marriages of his daughters contributed to the spreading of Jainism across northern India. The daughter of Dadhivāhana and Padmāvatī, Candanā or Candrabālā, became the first woman convert to Jainism shortly after Mahāvīra attained Kevala . Under Dadhivāhana's rule, Aṅga had conquered its western neighbour, the state of Magadha , hence why
989-626: The Paura assembly. According to A. S. Altekar , this theory is based on a misunderstanding of the text: the term "Paura" in the relevant portion of the Dharmasutra refers to a resident of the city, not a member of the city assembly. Jayaswal also argued that the members of the supposed Paura-Janapada assembly acted as counselors to the king, and made other important decisions such as imposing taxes in times of emergency. Once again, Altekar argued that these conclusions are based on misinterpretations of
1032-534: The Sthananga-sutra (sutra 747) are ten in numbers: However, the historians of mathematics differ in explaining some of the terms from the commentator, Abhayadeva Suri (1050 AD). Popular English translations are: Anga Anga was an ancient Indo-Aryan tribe of eastern India whose existence is attested during the Iron Age . The members of the Aṅga tribe were called the Āṅgeyas . Counted among
1075-404: The classification of certain janapadas as southern or northern. The Buddhist canonical texts - Anguttara Nikaya , Digha Nikaya , Chulla-Niddesa , although with some differences between them, primarily refer to the following 16 mahajanapadas ("great janapadas"): The Jain text Vyākhyāprajñapti or Bhagavati Sutra also mentions 16 important janapadas, but many names differ from
1118-464: The establishment of political units known as the janapadas. While some of the janas evolved into their own janapadas, others appear to have mixed together to form a common Janapada. According to the political scientist Sudama Misra, the name of the Panchala janapada suggests that it was a fusion of five ( pancha ) janas. Some janas (such as Aja and Mutiba) mentioned in the earliest texts do not find
1161-686: The following jana s or janapada s: The Puranas mention seven sub-divisions of ancient India: According to research by political scientist Sudama Misra, the Puranic texts mention the following janapada s: The Bhishma Parva of the Mahabharata mentions around 230 janapadas, while the Ramayana mentions only a few of these. Unlike the Puranas, the Mahabharata does not specify any geographical divisions of ancient India, but does support
1204-403: The inverted padajana would be expected. A primary meaning of "place of the people", janasya padam , would not explain why the compound is of masculine gender. An original dvandva "land and people" is conceivable, but a dual inflection would be expected. Literary evidence suggests that the janapadas flourished between 1100 BCE and 500 BCE. The earliest mention of the term "janapada" occurs in
1247-419: The king. The janas were originally semi-nomadic pastoral communities, but gradually came to be associated with specific territories as they became less mobile. Various kula s (clans) developed within the jana, each with its own chief. Gradually, the necessities of defence and warfare prompted the janas to form military groupings headed by janapadin s ( Kshatriya warriors). This model ultimately evolved into
1290-400: The kingdom, from which tax was collected by officers appointed by the king. What the king offered in return was protection from attack by other kings and bandit tribes, as well as from invading foreign nomadic tribes. The king also enforced law and order in his kingdom by punishing the guilty. The Janapadas had Kshatriya rulers. Based on literary references, historians have theorized that
1333-417: The literary evidence. For example, Jayaswal has wrongly translated the word "amantra" in a Ramayana verse as "to offer advice"; it actually means "to bid farewell" in proper context. There was no border security for a kingdom and border disputes were very rare. One king might conduct a military campaign (often designated as Digvijaya meaning conquest of the four directions ) and defeat another king in
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1376-566: The origin of name Aṅga as the place where Kamadeva was burnt to death by Siva and where his body parts ( aṅgas ) are scattered. Aṅga was first mentioned in the Atharvaveda , where it was connected to the Gāndhārīs , Mūjavats, and Māgadhīs . The founder of Aṅga might have been the king Aṅga Vairocana, who is mentioned in the Aitareya Brāhmaṇa as a ruler who had been consecrated by
1419-486: The same time as a campaign against Vatsa was being carried out by the king Pradyota of Avanti , the latter became the overlord of Vatsa, and Udayana lived as a captive at the court of Pradyota, in Ujjenī . During Udayana's captivity, the state of Kaliṅga attacked Aṅga and took Dadhivāhana captive. It was once Pradyota had restored Udayana to his throne, after the latter's marriage to his daughter Vāsavadattā, that Udayana
1462-530: The sea. During the 6th century BCE, the king of Aṅga was Dadhivāhana, who was married to the Licchavika princess Padmāvatī, who was herself the daughter of the consul of the Licchavika republic, Ceṭaka . Ceṭaka's sister Trisalā was the mother 24th Jain Tīrthaṅkara , Mahāvīra , thus making Ceṭaka his uncle and Padmāvatī his cousin; Ceṭaka himself had become an adept of the teachings of Mahāvīra and made
1505-522: The six most prominent cities of northern India, along with Rājagaha , Sāvatthī , Sāketa , Kosāmbī , and Vārāṇasī . During the Iron Age, Aṅga expanded to include Vaṅga within its borders, with the capital city of Campā being a wealthy commercial centre from where traders sailed to Suvarṇabhūmi . According to the Kathā-sarit-sāgara , the Āṅgeya city of Viṭaṅkapura was located on the shores of
1548-583: The style of the Sthananga Sutra is unique. It is divided into ten chapters, and each chapter enumerates certain topics according to their numbers. Each chapter is titled as a Thana. (Sanskrit: Sthānā) This āgama defines and catalogues the main substances of the Jain metaphysics. Diverse topics such as the Dharmakathanuyoga, Carananuyoga, Karananuyoga and Dravyanuyoga are covered. While the focus
1591-733: The tradition it was recited by ganadhara Sudharman, the fifth direct disciple of Mahāvīra, to his disciple Jambūsvāmin. Sthananga Sutra lists the topics which made up the mathematics studied from the time of 2nd century BCE onwards. In fact this list of topics sets the scene for the areas of study for a long time to come in the Indian subcontinent. The topics are listed in as: the theory of numbers , arithmetical operations, geometry , operations with fractions , simple equations , cubic equations , quartic equations , and permutations and combinations . It also gives classifications of five types of infinities . The topics of mathematics, according to
1634-577: The vacana held at Valabhi, in Gujarat , the Sthananga Sutra was finalised and redacted. The language used is Ardhamāgadhī Prakrit . The mula sutras of the Sthananga Sutra are difficult to understand without the help of a commentary or tika. Hence, in the 11th century CE, Abhayadevasuri wrote a comprehensive Sanskrit gloss on the Sthananga Sutra. The Sthānāngasūtra is known in Prakrit as the Thanam. Hence,
1677-514: The word has had a double meaning of "realm, territory" and "subject population" (cf. Hittite pedan , "place"). Linguist George Dunkel compares the Greek andrapodon "slave", to PIE *pédom "fetters" (i.e. "what is attached to the feet"). Sanskrit padám , usually taken to mean "footprint, trail", diverges in accent from the PIE reconstruction. For the sense of "population of the land", padasya janas ,
1720-597: The Āṅgeya king Brahmadatta , after which Aṅga became part of the Māgadhī empire, and Campā became the seat of a Māgadhī viceroy. During his pilgrimage there in the end of the 4th century, the Chinese monk Faxian noted the numerous Buddhist temples that still existed in Campā, transliterated Chanpo in Chinese (瞻波 pinyin : Zhānbō ; Wade–Giles : Chanpo ) . The kingdom of Aṅga by then had long ceased to exist; it had been known as Yāngjiā (鴦伽) in Chinese. In
1763-401: Was able to defeat Kaliṅga and restore Dadhivāhana on the Āṅgeya throne, and Dadhivāhana's daughter Priyadarśikā was married to Udayana; according to the later play Priyadarśikā , which itself rests on historical records, the Āṅgeya chamberlain took brought her into the refuge of the forest-king Vindhyaketu, from where she was captured by Udayana's army and, given the name Āraṇyikā ("she who
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1806-589: Was located at the confluence of the Campā and Gaṅgā rivers, and corresponds to the modern-day area of Campāpurī and Champanagar in Bhagalpur the eastern part of the Indian state of Bihār . According to the Jātaka s , Campā was also called Kāla-Campā, while Puranic texts claim its ancient name was Mālinī. The other important cities within the Aṅga kingdom included Assapura ( Sanskrit : Aśvapura ) and Bhaddiya ( Sanskrit : Bhadrika ). According to
1849-527: Was the case between the northern and southern Panchala and between the western ( Pandava 's kingdom) and eastern ( Kaurava 's kingdom) Kuru . Sometimes, large forests, which were larger than the kingdoms themselves, formed their boundaries as was the case of Naimisha Forest , the Naimisha Aranyam between Panchala and Kosala kingdoms. Mountain ranges like Himalaya , Vindhyachal and Sahyadri also formed their boundaries. Some kingdoms possessed
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