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68-501: As of August 2024, the city has an estimated population of 15,340 and a population density of 190 people per km. The total area is 78.69 km. The city was designated as the first "Amenity Town" in Hokkaido in 1984 (Showa 59). As an Amenity Town, Sunagawa contains lot of greenery, such as parks. Name of Sunagawa is derived from an Ainu word "Ota-ushi-nai", meaning the river near sandy shore. This Hokkaidō location article

136-568: A better cost/benefit ratio than non-participatory approaches, and suggested incorporating participatory plant breeding with evolutionary plant breeding. Evolutionary plant breeding describes practices which use mass populations with diverse genotypes grown under competitive natural selection. Survival in common crop cultivation environments is the predominant method of selection, rather than direct selection by growers and breeders. Individual plants that are favored under prevailing growing conditions, such as environment and inputs, contribute more seed to

204-407: A cross of related species or genera that do not normally sexually reproduce with each other. These crosses are referred to as Wide crosses . For example, the cereal triticale is a wheat and rye hybrid. The cells in the plants derived from the first generation created from the cross contained an uneven number of chromosomes and as a result was sterile. The cell division inhibitor colchicine

272-476: A few programs, most notably the Chinese government's one-child per family policy, have resorted to coercive measures. In the 1970s, tension grew between population control advocates and women's health activists who advanced women's reproductive rights as part of a human rights -based approach. Growing opposition to the narrow population control focus led to a significant change in population control policies in

340-462: A few varieties that became dominant in some locations almost disappeared in others; poorly-adapted varieties disappeared everywhere. Evolutionary breeding populations have been used to establish self-regulating plant–pathogen systems. Examples include barley, where breeders were able to improve resistance to Rynchosporium secalis scald over 45 generations. An evolutionary breeding project grew F5 hybrid bulk soybean populations on soil infested by

408-469: A growing European mutiny over genetically modified crops by banning the planting of a widely grown pest-resistant corn variety. " The debate encompasses the ecological impact of genetically modified plants , the safety of genetically modified food and concepts used for safety evaluation like substantial equivalence . Such concerns are not new to plant breeding. Most countries have regulatory processes in place to help ensure that new crop varieties entering

476-605: A plant are what determine what type of qualitative or quantitative traits it will have. Plant breeders strive to create a specific outcome of plants and potentially new plant varieties, and in the course of doing so, narrow down the genetic diversity of that variety to a specific few biotypes. It is practiced worldwide by individuals such as gardeners and farmers, and by professional plant breeders employed by organizations such as government institutions, universities, crop-specific industry associations or research centers. International development agencies believe that breeding new crops

544-444: A plant with the desired trait or traits faster than classical breeding because the majority of the plant's genome is not altered. To genetically modify a plant, a genetic construct must be designed so that the gene to be added or removed will be expressed by the plant. To do this, a promoter to drive transcription and a termination sequence to stop transcription of the new gene, and the gene or genes of interest must be introduced to

612-406: A technique called chromosome engineering may also be used. When a desirable trait has been bred into a species, a number of crosses to the favored parent are made to make the new plant as similar to the favored parent as possible. Returning to the example of the mildew resistant pea being crossed with a high- yielding but susceptible pea, to make the mildew resistant progeny of the cross most like

680-566: A whole plant. Such a method is referred to as embryo rescue . This technique has been used to produce new rice for Africa , an interspecific cross of Asian rice Oryza sativa and African rice O. glaberrima . Hybrids may also be produced by a technique called protoplast fusion. In this case protoplasts are fused, usually in an electric field. Viable recombinants can be regenerated in culture. Chemical mutagens like ethyl methanesulfonate (EMS) and dimethyl sulfate (DMS), radiation , and transposons are used for mutagenesis . Mutagenesis

748-449: Is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Population Population is the term typically used to refer to the number of people in a single area. Governments conduct a census to quantify the size of a resident population within a given jurisdiction. The term is also applied to non-human animals , microorganisms , and plants , and has specific uses within such fields as ecology and genetics . The word population

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816-425: Is achieved by adding a specific gene or genes to a plant, or by knocking down a gene with RNAi , to produce a desirable phenotype . The plants resulting from adding a gene are often referred to as transgenic plants . If for genetic modification genes of the species or of a crossable plant are used under control of their native promoter, then they are called cisgenic plants . Sometimes genetic modification can produce

884-453: Is also known as molecular breeding . Sometimes many different genes can influence a desirable trait in plant breeding. The use of tools such as molecular markers or DNA fingerprinting can map thousands of genes. This allows plant breeders to screen large populations of plants for those that possess the trait of interest. The screening is based on the presence or absence of a certain gene as determined by laboratory procedures, rather than on

952-913: Is also known therefore as a gamodeme. This also implies that all members belong to the same species. If the gamodeme is very large (theoretically, approaching infinity), and all gene alleles are uniformly distributed by the gametes within it, the gamodeme is said to be panmictic. Under this state, allele ( gamete ) frequencies can be converted to genotype ( zygote ) frequencies by expanding an appropriate quadratic equation , as shown by Sir Ronald Fisher in his establishment of quantitative genetics. This seldom occurs in nature: localization of gamete exchange – through dispersal limitations, preferential mating, cataclysm, or other cause – may lead to small actual gamodemes which exchange gametes reasonably uniformly within themselves but are virtually separated from their neighboring gamodemes. However, there may be low frequencies of exchange with these neighbors. This may be viewed as

1020-582: Is an important and controversial issue. Production of new varieties is dominated by commercial plant breeders, who seek to protect their work and collect royalties through national and international agreements based in intellectual property rights . The range of related issues is complex. In the simplest terms, critics of the increasingly restrictive regulations argue that, through a combination of technical and economic pressures, commercial breeders are reducing biodiversity and significantly constraining individuals (such as farmers) from developing and trading seed on

1088-423: Is broader, covering molecular biology , cytology , systematics , physiology , pathology , entomology , chemistry , and statistics ( biometrics ). It has also developed its own technology. One major technique of plant breeding is selection , the process of selectively propagating plants with desirable characteristics and eliminating or "culling" those with less desirable characteristics. Another technique

1156-538: Is derived from the Late Latin populatio (a people, a multitude), which itself is derived from the Latin word populus (a people). In sociology and population geography , population refers to a group of human beings with some predefined feature in common, such as location, race , ethnicity , nationality , or religion . In ecology , a population is a group of organisms of the same species which inhabit

1224-684: Is important for ensuring food security by developing new varieties that are higher yielding, disease resistant, drought tolerant or regionally adapted to different environments and growing conditions. A recent study shows that without plant breeding, Europe would have produced 20% fewer arable crops over the last 20 years, consuming an additional 21.6 million hectares (53 million acres) of land and emitting 4 billion tonnes (3.9 × 10 long tons; 4.4 × 10 short tons) of carbon. Wheat species created for Morocco are currently being crossed with plants to create new varieties for northern France. Soy beans, which were previously grown predominantly in

1292-609: Is not even known to the nearest million, so there is a considerable margin of error in such estimates. Researcher Carl Haub calculated that a total of over 100 billion people have probably been born in the last 2000 years. Population growth increased significantly as the Industrial Revolution gathered pace from 1700 onwards. The last 50 years have seen a yet more rapid increase in the rate of population growth due to medical advances and substantial increases in agricultural productivity, particularly beginning in

1360-611: Is often referred to as the demographic transition . Human population planning is the practice of altering the rate of growth of a human population. Historically, human population control has been implemented with the goal of limiting the rate of population growth. In the period from the 1950s to the 1980s, concerns about global population growth and its effects on poverty, environmental degradation , and political stability led to efforts to reduce population growth rates. While population control can involve measures that improve people's lives by giving them greater control of their reproduction,

1428-416: Is one common cause of yield loss Genetic modification of plants that can produce pharmaceuticals (and industrial chemicals), sometimes called pharming , is a rather radical new area of plant breeding. The debate surrounding genetically modified food during the 1990s peaked in 1999 in terms of media coverage and risk perception, and continues today – for example, " Germany has thrown its weight behind

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1496-423: Is that the virus is not usually passed on to the progeny, so every plant has to be inoculated. The majority of commercially released transgenic plants are currently limited to plants that have introduced resistance to insect pests and herbicides . Insect resistance is achieved through incorporation of a gene from Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) that encodes a protein that is toxic to some insects. For example,

1564-430: Is the deliberate interbreeding (crossing) of closely or distantly related individuals to produce new crop varieties or lines with desirable properties. Plants are crossbred to introduce traits / genes from one variety or line into a new genetic background. For example, a mildew -resistant pea may be crossed with a high-yielding but susceptible pea, the goal of the cross being to introduce mildew resistance without losing

1632-440: Is the generation of mutants. The breeder hopes for desirable traits to be bred with other cultivars – a process known as mutation breeding . Classical plant breeders also generate genetic diversity within a species by exploiting a process called somaclonal variation , which occurs in plants produced from tissue culture, particularly plants derived from callus . Induced polyploidy , and the addition or removal of chromosomes using

1700-715: Is very likely that the world's population will stop growing before the end of the 21st century. Further, there is some likelihood that population will actually decline before 2100. Population has already declined in the last decade or two in Eastern Europe, the Baltics and in the former Commonwealth of Independent States. The population pattern of less-developed regions of the world in recent years has been marked by gradually declining birth rates. These followed an earlier sharp reduction in death rates. This transition from high birth and death rates to low birth and death rates

1768-433: Is when farmers are involved in a crop improvement programme with opportunities to make decisions and contribute to the research process at different stages. Participatory approaches to crop improvement can also be applied when plant biotechnologies are being used for crop improvement. Local agricultural systems and genetic diversity are strengthened by participatory programs, and outcomes are enhanced by farmers knowledge of

1836-556: The Green Revolution increased crop production in the developing world in the 1960s. Following World War II a number of techniques were developed that allowed plant breeders to hybridize distantly related species, and artificially induce genetic diversity. When distantly related species are crossed, plant breeders make use of a number of plant tissue culture techniques to produce progeny from otherwise fruitless mating. Interspecific and intergeneric hybrids are produced from

1904-400: The cotton bollworm , a common cotton pest, feeds on Bt cotton it will ingest the toxin and die. Herbicides usually work by binding to certain plant enzymes and inhibiting their action. The enzymes that the herbicide inhibits are known as the herbicide's " target site ". Herbicide resistance can be engineered into crops by expressing a version of target site protein that is not inhibited by

1972-492: The soybean cyst nematode and was able to increase the proportion of resistant plants from 5% to 40%. The International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA) evolutionary plant breeding is combined with participatory plant breeding in order to allow farmers to choose which varieties suit their needs in their local environment. An influential 1956 effort by Coit A. Suneson to codify this approach coined

2040-503: The 1960s, made by the Green Revolution . In 2017 the United Nations Population Division projected that the world's population would reach about 9.8 billion in 2050 and 11.2 billion in 2100. In the future, the world's population is expected to peak at some point, after which it will decline due to economic reasons, health concerns, land exhaustion and environmental hazards. According to one report, it

2108-496: The United States Census Bureau, the world population hit 6.5 billion on 24 February 2006. The United Nations Population Fund designated 12 October 1999 as the approximate day on which world population reached 6 billion. This was about 12 years after the world population reached 5 billion in 1987, and six years after the world population reached 5.5 billion in 1993. The population of countries such as Nigeria

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2176-480: The breaking up of a large sexual population (panmictic) into smaller overlapping sexual populations. This failure of panmixia leads to two important changes in overall population structure: (1) the component gamodemes vary (through gamete sampling) in their allele frequencies when compared with each other and with the theoretical panmictic original (this is known as dispersion, and its details can be estimated using expansion of an appropriate binomial equation ); and (2)

2244-430: The concentrations of specific biological molecules (proteins, sugars, lipids, vitamins, fibers) and ease of processing (harvesting, milling, baking, malting, blending, etc.). Plant breeding can be performed using many different techniques, ranging from the selection of the most desirable plants for propagation, to methods that make use of knowledge of genetics and chromosomes, to more complex molecular techniques. Genes in

2312-421: The desired traits. Furthermore, two different homozygous plants created in that way can be used to produce a generation of F1 hybrid plants which have the advantages of heterozygosity and a greater range of possible traits. Thus, an individual heterozygous plant chosen for its desirable characteristics can be converted into a heterozygous variety (F1 hybrid) without the necessity of vegetative reproduction but as

2380-548: The early 1980s. Plant breeding Plant breeding is the science of changing the traits of plants in order to produce desired characteristics. It is used to improve the quality of plant products for use by humans and animals. The goals of plant breeding are to produce crop varieties that boast unique and superior traits for a variety of applications. The most frequently addressed agricultural traits are those related to biotic and abiotic stress tolerance, grain or biomass yield, end-use quality characteristics such as taste or

2448-443: The early 20th century, plant breeders realized that Gregor Mendel 's findings on the non-random nature of inheritance could be applied to seedling populations produced through deliberate pollinations to predict the frequencies of different types. Wheat hybrids were bred to increase the crop production of Italy during the so-called " Battle for Grain " (1925–1940). Heterosis was explained by George Harrison Shull . It describes

2516-419: The future include the lack of arable land, increasingly harsh cropping conditions and the need to maintain food security, which involves being able to provide the world population with sufficient nutrition. Crops need to be able to mature in multiple environments to allow worldwide access, which involves solving problems including drought tolerance. It has been suggested that global solutions are achievable through

2584-580: The general usability of the process across multiple target plant species. These methods will work even better with large, publicly available open data sets . Speed breeding is introduced by Watson et al. 2018. Classical (human performed) phenotyping during speed breeding is also possible, using a procedure developed by Richard et al. 2015. As of 2020 it is highly anticipated that SB and automated phenotyping will, combined, produce greatly improved outcomes – see § Phenotyping and artificial intelligence above. The NGS platform has substantially declined

2652-515: The herbicide. This is the method used to produce glyphosate resistant (" Roundup Ready ") crop plants. Genetic modification can further increase yields by increasing stress tolerance to a given environment. Stresses such as temperature variation, are signalled to the plant via a cascade of signalling molecules which will activate a transcription factor to regulate gene expression . Overexpression of particular genes involved in cold acclimation has been shown to produce more resistance to freezing, which

2720-493: The high-yield characteristics. Progeny from the cross would then be crossed with the high-yielding parent to ensure that the progeny were most like the high-yielding parent, ( backcrossing ). The progeny from that cross would then be tested for yield (selection, as described above) and mildew resistance and high-yielding resistant plants would be further developed. Plants may also be crossed with themselves to produce inbred varieties for breeding. Pollinators may be excluded through

2788-484: The high-yielding parent, the progeny will be crossed back to that parent for several generations (See backcrossing ). This process removes most of the genetic contribution of the mildew resistant parent. Classical breeding is therefore a cyclical process. With classical breeding techniques, the breeder does not know exactly what genes have been introduced to the new cultivars. Some scientists therefore argue that plants produced by classical breeding methods should undergo

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2856-548: The late 19th century. Gartons Agricultural Plant Breeders in England was established in the 1890s by John Garton, who was one of the first to commercialize new varieties of agricultural crops created through cross-pollination. The firm's first introduction was the Abundance Oat , an oat variety. It is one of the first agricultural grain varieties bred from a controlled cross, introduced to commerce in 1892. In

2924-463: The level of homozygosity rises in the entire collection of gamodemes. The overall rise in homozygosity is quantified by the inbreeding coefficient (f or φ). All homozygotes are increased in frequency – both the deleterious and the desirable. The mean phenotype of the gamodemes collection is lower than that of the panmictic original – which is known as inbreeding depression. It is most important to note, however, that some dispersion lines will be superior to

2992-663: The marketplace are both safe and meet farmers' needs. Examples include variety registration, seed schemes, regulatory authorizations for GM plants, etc. Industrial breeding of plants has unintentionally altered how agricultural cultivars associate with their microbiome. In maize, for example, breeding has altered the nitrogen cycling taxa required to the rhizosphere, with more modern lines recruiting less nitrogen fixing taxa and more nitrifiers and denitrifiers . Microbiomes of breeding lines showed that hybrid plants share much of their bacterial community with their parents, such as Cucurbita seeds and apple shoot endophytes. In addition,

3060-466: The marketplace. Even with the very latest in biotech -assisted conventional breeding, incorporation of a trait takes an average of seven generations for clonally propagated crops, nine for self-fertilising , and seventeen for cross-pollinating . Modern plant breeding may use techniques of molecular biology to select, or in the case of genetic modification, to insert, desirable traits into plants. Application of biotechnology or molecular biology

3128-416: The need for breeding multiple generations of plants to get a generation that is homogeneous for the desired traits, thereby saving much time over the natural version of the same process. There are many plant tissue culturing techniques that can be used to achieve haploid plants, but microspore culturing is currently the most promising for producing the largest numbers of them. Genetic modification of plants

3196-821: The next generation than less-adapted individuals. Evolutionary plant breeding has been successfully used by the Nepal National Gene Bank to preserve landrace diversity within Jumli Marshi rice while reducing its susceptibility to blast disease. These practices have also been used in Nepal with bean landraces. In 1929, Harlan and Martini proposed a method of plant breeding with heterogeneous populations by pooling an equal number of F2 seeds obtained from 378 crosses among 28 geographically diverse barley cultivars. In 1938, Harlan and Martini demonstrated evolution by natural selection in mixed dynamic populations as

3264-418: The panmictic original, while some will be about the same, and some will be inferior. The probabilities of each can be estimated from those binomial equations. In plant and animal breeding , procedures have been developed which deliberately utilize the effects of dispersion (such as line breeding, pure-line breeding, backcrossing). Dispersion-assisted selection leads to the greatest genetic advance (ΔG=change in

3332-771: The phenotypic mean), and is much more powerful than selection acting without attendant dispersion. This is so for both allogamous (random fertilization) and autogamous (self-fertilization) gamodemes. According to the UN, the world's population surpassed 8 billion on 15 November 2022, an increase of 1 billion since 12 March 2012. According to a separate estimate by the United Nations, Earth's population exceeded seven billion in October 2011. According to UNFPA , growth to such an extent offers unprecedented challenges and opportunities to all of humanity. According to papers published by

3400-454: The plant genome by genetic recombination using the bacteria Agrobacterium tumefaciens or A. rhizogenes , or by direct methods like the gene gun or microinjection . Using plant viruses to insert genetic constructs into plants is also a possibility, but the technique is limited by the host range of the virus. For example, Cauliflower mosaic virus (CaMV) only infects cauliflower and related species. Another limitation of viral vectors

3468-443: The plant. A marker for the selection of transformed plants is also included. In the laboratory , antibiotic resistance is a commonly used marker: Plants that have been successfully transformed will grow on media containing antibiotics; plants that have not been transformed will die. In some instances markers for selection are removed by backcrossing with the parent plant prior to commercial release. The construct can be inserted in

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3536-471: The population of a certain species in a certain area can be estimated using the Lincoln index to calculate the total population of an area based on the number of individuals observed. In genetics, a population is often defined as a set of organisms in which any pair of members can breed together. They can thus routinely exchange gametes in order to have usually fertile progeny, and such a breeding group

3604-577: The process of plant breeding, with its ability to select specific genes allowing crops to perform at a level which yields the desired results. One issue facing agriculture is the loss of landraces and other local varieties which have diversity that may have useful genes for climate adaptation in the future. Conventional breeding intentionally limits phenotype plasticity within genotypes and limits variability between genotypes. Uniformity does not allow crops to adapt to climate change and other biotic stresses and abiotic stresses . Plant breeders' rights

3672-595: The proportional contribution of the microbiome from parents to offspring corresponds to the amount of genetic material contributed by each parent during breeding and domestication. As of 2020 machine learning – and especially deep machine learning – has recently become more commonly used in phenotyping . Computer vision using ML has made great strides and is now being applied to leaf phenotyping and other phenotyping jobs typically performed by human eyes. Pound et al. 2017 and Singh et al. 2016 are especially salient examples of early successful application and demonstration of

3740-415: The quality required and evaluation of the target environment. A 2019 review of participatory plant breeding indicated that it had not gained widespread acceptance despite its record of successfully developing varieties with improved diversity and nutritional quality, as well as greater likelihood of these improved varieties being adopted by farmers. This review also found participatory plant breeding to have

3808-435: The result of the cross of two homozygous/doubled haploid lines derived from the originally selected plant. This shortcut has been dubbed 'reverse breeding'. Plant tissue culturing can produce haploid or double haploid plant lines and generations. This cuts down the genetic diversity taken from that plant species in order to select for desirable traits that will increase the fitness of the individuals. Using this method decreases

3876-410: The same geographical area and are capable of interbreeding . The area of a sexual population is the area where interbreeding is possible between any opposite-sex pair within the area and more probable than cross-breeding with individuals from other areas. In humans , interbreeding is unrestricted by racial differences, as all humans belong to the same species of Homo sapiens. In ecology,

3944-405: The same safety testing regime as genetically modified plants. There have been instances where plants bred using classical techniques have been unsuitable for human consumption, for example the poison solanine was unintentionally increased to unacceptable levels in certain varieties of potato through plant breeding. New potato varieties are often screened for solanine levels before reaching

4012-434: The same. If a gene's location and function is identified in one plant species, a very similar gene likely can also be found in a similar location in another related species genome. Homozygous plants with desirable traits can be produced from heterozygous starting plants, if a haploid cell with the alleles for those traits can be produced, and then used to make a doubled haploid . The doubled haploid will be homozygous for

4080-613: The south of France , are now grown in southern Germany. Plant breeding started with sedentary agriculture and particularly the domestication of the first agricultural plants, a practice which is estimated to date back 9,000 to 11,000 years. Initially early farmers simply selected food plants with particular desirable characteristics, and employed these as progenitors for subsequent generations, resulting in an accumulation of valuable traits over time. Grafting technology had been practiced in China before 2000 BCE. By 500 BCE grafting

4148-570: The tendency of the progeny of a specific cross to outperform both parents. The detection of the usefulness of heterosis for plant breeding has led to the development of inbred lines that reveal a heterotic yield advantage when they are crossed. Maize was the first species where heterosis was widely used to produce hybrids. Statistical methods were also developed to analyze gene action and distinguish heritable variation from variation caused by environment. In 1933 another important breeding technique, cytoplasmic male sterility (CMS), developed in maize,

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4216-590: The term evolutionary plant breeding and concluded that 15 generations of natural selection are desirable to produce results that are competitive with conventional breeding. Evolutionary breeding allows working with much larger plant population sizes than conventional breeding. It has also been used in tandem with conventional practices in order to develop both heterogeneous and homogeneous crop lines for low input agricultural systems that have unpredictable stress conditions. Evolutionary plant breeding has been delineated into four stages: Issues facing plant breeding in

4284-478: The time and cost required for sequencing and facilitated SNP discovery in model and non-model plants. This in turn has led to employing large-scale SNP markers in genomic selection approaches which aim at predicting genomic breeding values/GEBVs of genotypes in a given population. This method can increase the selection accuracy and decrease the time of each breeding cycle. It has been used in different crops such as maize, wheat, etc. Participatory plant breeding (PPB)

4352-529: The use of pollination bags . Classical breeding relies largely on homologous recombination between chromosomes to generate genetic diversity . The classical plant breeder may also make use of a number of in vitro techniques such as protoplast fusion , embryo rescue or mutagenesis (see below) to generate diversity and produce hybrid plants that would not exist in nature . Traits that breeders have tried to incorporate into crop plants include: Successful commercial plant breeding concerns were founded from

4420-405: The visual identification of the expressed trait in the plant. The purpose of marker assisted selection, or plant genome analysis, is to identify the location and function ( phenotype ) of various genes within the genome. If all of the genes are identified it leads to genome sequence . All plants have varying sizes and lengths of genomes with genes that code for different proteins, but many are also

4488-474: Was described by Marcus Morton Rhoades . CMS is a maternally inherited trait that makes the plant produce sterile pollen . This enables the production of hybrids without the need for labor-intensive detasseling . These early breeding techniques resulted in large yield increase in the United States in the early 20th century. Similar yield increases were not produced elsewhere until after World War II ,

4556-441: Was used to double the number of chromosomes in the cell and thus allow the production of a fertile line. Failure to produce a hybrid may be due to pre- or post- fertilization incompatibility. If fertilization is possible between two species or genera, the hybrid embryo may abort before maturation. If this does occur the embryo resulting from an interspecific or intergeneric cross can sometimes be rescued and cultured to produce

4624-437: Was well established and practiced. Gregor Mendel (1822–84) is considered the "father of genetics ". His experiments with plant hybridization led to his establishing laws of inheritance . Genetics stimulated research to improve crop production through plant breeding. Selective breeding played a crucial role in the Green Revolution of the 20th century. Modern plant breeding is applied genetics, but its scientific basis

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