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76-438: In 1949, 3M began producing PFOS-based compounds by electrochemical fluorination . In 1968, organofluorine compounds were detected in the blood serum of consumers, and in 1976, perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) or a related compound such as PFOS were suggested as components. In 1997, 3M detected PFOS in blood from global blood banks, although the company's internal documents indicate knowledge of this decades earlier, dating from

152-424: A carbon-fluorine bond , one of the strongest in organic chemistry . They move through soils and bioaccumulate in fish and wildlife, which are then eaten by humans. Residues are now commonly found in rain and drinking water . Since PFAS compounds are highly mobile, they are readily absorbed through human skin and through tear ducts , and such products on lips are often unwittingly ingested. Due to

228-424: A carpet stain repellent, and N -ethyl perfluorooctane sulfonamidoethanol  [ de ] ( N -EtFOSE), a paper treatment. Also perfluorooctanesulfonamide is a precursor. About 50 precursors were named in the 2004 proposed Canadian ban on PFOS. PFOS virtually does not degrade under environmental conditions and is thus highly persistent. Waste water treatment plants are also unable to degrade PFOS. On

304-446: A fluorosurfactant that lowers the surface tension of water more than that of hydrocarbon surfactants . Perfluorooctanesulfonic acid is usually used as the sodium or potassium salts . The most important emission sources of PFOS are metal plating and fire-fighting foams. Because of concerns about PFOS, F-53B has been used as a replacement for mist suppression in metal plating. Because of its chemical nature, PFOS will remain in

380-578: A 2002 report by the Environmental Directorate of the OECD , "PFOS is persistent, bioaccumulative, and toxic to mammalian species." Several studies have focused on pregnancy outcomes in infants and mothers who are exposed to PFOS during pregnancy. For developing offspring, exposure to PFOS occurs through the placenta. While the impact of PFOS compounds on fetal development continues to be an ongoing investigation, findings have demonstrated

456-465: A developing fetus as this hormone is involved with brain development and body growth. Studies have demonstrated a relationship between PFOS exposure and thyroid dysfunction during pregnancy resulting in altered thyroid hormone levels in both the mother and the fetus. PFOS has been associated with increased risk of abnormal levels of cholesterol . Specifically, epidemiological studies in humans have reported an association between increased PFOS levels and

532-556: A few noted exceptions, any chemical with at least a perfluorinated methyl group ( −CF 3 ) or a perfluorinated methylene group ( −CF 2 − ) is a PFAS." This definition notably includes Carbon tetrafluoride . The United States Environmental Protection Agency defines PFAS in the Drinking Water Contaminant Candidate List 5 as substances that contain "at least one of the following three structures: R−CF 2 −CF(R')R" , where both

608-529: A field study published in 2021 by researchers at Stockholm University found that they are often transferred from water to air when waves reach land, are a significant source of air pollution , and eventually get into rain. The researchers concluded that pollution may impact large areas. In 2024, a worldwide study of 45,000 groundwater samples found that 31% of samples contained levels of PFAS that were harmful to human health; these samples were taken from areas not near any obvious source of contamination. Soil

684-635: A group of synthetic organofluorine chemical compounds that have multiple fluorine atoms attached to an alkyl chain; there are 7 million such chemicals according to PubChem . PFAS came into use after the invention of Teflon in 1938 to make fluoropolymer coatings and products that resist heat, oil, stains, grease, and water. They are now used in products including waterproof fabric such as Nylon , yoga pants , carpets, shampoo, feminine hygiene products, mobile phone screens, wall paint, furniture, adhesives, food packaging , heat-resistant non-stick cooking surfaces such as Teflon , firefighting foam , and

760-562: A long legal battle against the Veneto Region and ISS, which for years has denied access to data, despite values known since or even before 2017. The Veneto region has not carried out further monitoring or taken resolutive actions to eliminate pollution and reduce, at least gradually, the contamination of non-potable water. Although in 2020 the European Food Safety Agency (EFSA) has reduced by more than four times

836-724: A relationship between PFOS exposure in pregnant mothers and negative birth outcomes. There has been some evidence to suggest that PFOS levels in pregnant women have been associated with preeclampsia , preterm labor , low birth weight and gestational diabetes . Although, the strongest association is between PFOS levels with preterm birth and preeclampsia. There has been some evidence to suggest that PFOS impairs fetal growth during pregnancy, although findings have been inconsistent. The specific physiological mechanisms behind adverse pregnancy outcomes with PFOS exposure remain unclear. One proposed cause has to do with PFOS impairment on placental blood flow. This mechanism could help explain several of

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912-585: A series of projects to understand the scale and nature of PFAS in the environment. The Drinking Water Inspectorate requires water companies to report concentrations of 47 PFAS. Many PFASs are either not covered by European legislation or are excluded from registration obligations under the EU Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation and Restriction of Chemicals (REACH) chemical regulation. Several PFASs have been detected in drinking water, municipal wastewater, and landfill leachates worldwide. In 2019,

988-730: A small segment of individuals in the upper range of the general population may be over the 91.5 parts per billion level. PFOS exposure has been demonstrated as early as fetal development during pregnancy since PFOS can easily pass through the placenta . It has been shown that fetal exposure to PFOS is quite prevalent and has been shown to be detected in greater than 99% of umbilical cord serum samples. PFOS has been detected in U.S. freshwater fish , as well as in municipal wastewater and drinking water samples, worldwide, at concentrations ranging between few ng/L and some μg/L. A variety of wildlife species have had PFOS levels measured in egg , liver , kidney , serum , and plasma samples and some of

1064-460: A so-called restriction proposal based on the REACH regulation to achieve a European ban on the production, use, sale and import of PFAS. The proposal states that a ban is necessary for all use of PFAS, with different periods for different applications when the ban takes effect (immediately after the restriction comes into force, five years afterward, or 12 years afterward), depending on the function and

1140-474: A subgroup of PFAS characterized by a hydrophobic fluorinated "tail" and a hydrophilic "head" that behave as surfactants . These are more effective at reducing the surface tension of water than comparable hydrocarbon surfactants. They include the perfluorosulfonic acids , such as perfluorooctanesulfonic acid (PFOS), and the perfluorocarboxylic acids like perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA). As with other surfactants, fluorosurfactants tend to concentrate at

1216-518: A total industry profit of $ 4 billion per year on 16% profit margins . Due to health concerns, several companies have ended or plan to end the sale of PFAS or products that contain them; these include W. L. Gore & Associates (the maker of Gore-Tex ), H&M , Patagonia , REI , and 3M . PFAS producers have paid billions of dollars to settle litigation claims, the largest being a $ 10.3 billion settlement paid by 3M for water contamination in 2023. Studies have shown that companies have known of

1292-844: Is a shift towards anti-inflammatory M2 macrophages and/or T-helper (TH2) response in intestinal epithelial tissue which allows sulfate-reducing bacteria to flourish. Elevated levels of hydrogen sulfide result, which reduce beta-oxidation and nutrient production, leading to a breakdown of the colonic epithelial barrier. Hypothyroidism is the most common thyroid abnormality associated with PFAS exposure. PFASs have been shown to decrease thyroid peroxidase , resulting in decreased production and activation of thyroid hormones in vivo. Other proposed mechanisms include alterations in thyroid hormone signaling, metabolism and excretion as well as function of nuclear hormone receptor . Bioaccumulation controls internal concentrations of pollutants, including PFAS, in individual organisms. When bioaccumulation

1368-569: Is also contaminated and the chemicals have been found in remote areas such as Antarctica . Soil contamination can result in higher levels of PFAs found in foods such as white rice, coffee, and animals reared on contaminated ground. From 2005 to 2013, three epidemiologists known as the C8 Science Panel conducted health studies in the Mid-Ohio Valley as part of a contingency to a class action lawsuit brought by communities in

1444-494: Is an electrolysis method whereby the precursor of octanesulfonyl fluoride is electrolyzed in a solution of hydrogen fluoride to give perfluorooctanesulfonyl fluoride . This production method also results in shorter chain perfluoroalkyl substances being formed. PFOS predominates in the resultant mixture. A distinct isomer ratio has been observed in PFOS produced by ECF, in the order of 70% linear PFOS, 25% branched and 5% terminal; this

1520-549: Is classified as carcinogenic to humans (Group 1) by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) based on "sufficient" evidence for cancer in animals and "strong" mechanistic evidence in exposed humans. IARC also classified PFOS as possibly carcinogenic to humans (Group 2b) based on "strong" mechanistic evidence. There is a lack of high-quality epidemiological data on the associations between many specific PFAS chemicals and specific cancer types, and research

1596-448: Is currently investigating the association of several PFAS compounds and cancers including kidney cancer, testicular cancer, prostate cancer, ovarian and endometrial cancer, thyroid cancer, non-hodgkins lymphoma, and childhood leukemia. The levels observed in wild animals are considered sufficient to "alter health parameters". PFOS affects the immune system of male mice at a blood serum concentration of 91.5 parts per billion , raising

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1672-729: Is less regulation. In the United States, the Republican Party has filibustered bills regulating the chemicals. Cover-ups and the suppression of studies in 2018 by the Trump administration led to bipartisan outrage. The market for PFAS was estimated to be $ 28 billion in 2023 and the majority are produced by 12 companies: 3M , AGC Inc. , Archroma, Arkema , BASF , Bayer , Chemours , Daikin , Honeywell , Merck Group , Shandong Dongyue Chemical, and Solvay . Sales of PFAS, which cost approximately $ 20 per kilogram, generate

1748-511: Is looked at in the perspective of the entire food web, it is called biomagnification, which is important to track because lower concentrations of pollutants in environmental matrices such as seawater or sediments, can very quickly grow to harmful concentrations in organisms at higher trophic levels, including humans. Notably, concentrations in biota can even be greater than 5000 times those present in water for PFOS and C 10 –C 14 PFCAs . PFAS can enter an organism by ingestion of sediment, through

1824-427: Is not a function of the production process but rather that the precursor also exhibits this isomer ratio. ECF was the means by which 3M produced PFOS up until May 2000 when the company announced a phaseout of fluorosurfactants . Although 89 constitutional isomers of PFOS are possible, environmental samples usually consist of a mixture of the linear isomer and 10 branched isomers. Telomerisation involves constructing

1900-739: Is ongoing. A response is observed in humans where elevated PFOS levels were significantly associated with elevated total cholesterol and LDL cholesterol, highlighting significantly reduced PPAR expression and alluding to PPAR independent pathways predominating over lipid metabolism in humans compared to rodents. PFOA and PFOS have been shown to significantly alter immune and inflammatory responses in human and animal species. In particular, IgA , IgE (in females only) and C-reactive protein have been shown to decrease whereas antinuclear antibodies increase as PFOA serum concentrations increase. These cytokine variations allude to immune response aberrations resulting in autoimmunity . One proposed mechanism

1976-426: Is still ongoing. A few studies have demonstrated an elevated risk for prostate and bladder cancer, however, there were notable limitations in the design and analysis of these studies. As of November 2023, the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) has classified PFOS as possibly carcinogenic to humans (Group 2b) based on “strong” mechanistic evidence. The Division of Cancer Epidemiology & Genetics (DCEG)

2052-496: Is still some concern that they may be harmful to both humans and the environment. Since the 1970s, DuPont and 3M were aware that PFAS was "highly toxic when inhaled and moderately toxic when ingested". Producers used several strategies to influence science and regulation – most notably, suppressing unfavorable research and distorting public discourse. In 2018, under the Presidency of Donald Trump , White House staff and

2128-399: Is thought to be Europe's biggest PFAS-related environmental disaster. While Italy's National Health Institute (ISS, Istituto Superiore di Sanità ) set the threshold limit of PFOA in the bloodstream at 8 nanograms per milliliter (ng/mL), some residents had reached 262 and some industrial employees reach 91,900 ng/mL. In 2021 some data was disclosed by Greenpeace and local citizens after

2204-544: Is under development. "Per-and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS)" Based on an OECD study on PFOS and a risk assessment by Europe's Scientific Committee on Health and Environmental Risks the European Union practically banned the use of PFOS in finished and semi-finished products in 2006 (maximum content of PFOS: 0.005% by weight). However, PFOS use for industrial applications (e.g. photolithography, mist suppressants for hard chromium plating, hydraulic fluids for aviation)

2280-536: The −CF 2 − and −CF− moieties are saturated carbons, and none of the R groups can be hydrogen; R−CF 2 −O−CF 2 −(R') , where both the −CF 2 − moieties are saturated carbons, and none of the R groups can be hydrogen; or CF 3 −C−(CF 3 )RR' , where all the carbons are saturated, and none of the R groups can be hydrogen. A summary table of some PFAS definitions is provided in Hammel et al (2022). Fluorinated surfactants or fluorosurfactants are

2356-455: The ABC 's current affairs program Four Corners reported that the storage and use of firefighting foams containing perfluorinated surfactants at Australian Defence Force facilities around Australia had contaminated nearby water resources. In 2019, remediation efforts at RAAF Base Tindal and the adjacent town of Katherine were ongoing. In the 2022 Australian federal budget $ 428   million

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2432-610: The European Council requested the European Commission to develop an action plan to eliminate all non-essential uses of PFAS due to the growing evidence of adverse effects caused by exposure to these substances; the evidence for the widespread occurrence of PFAS in water, soil, articles, and waste; and the threat it can pose to drinking water. Germany, the Netherlands, Denmark, Norway, and Sweden submitted

2508-493: The European Economic Area . In the United States, PFAS-attributable disease costs are estimated to be US$ 6–62 billion. Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances are a group of synthetic organofluorine chemical compounds that have multiple fluorine atoms attached to an alkyl chain. Different organizations use different definitions for PFAS, leading to estimates of between 8,000 and 7 million chemicals within

2584-793: The Ohio River Valley against DuPont in response to landfill and wastewater dumping of PFAS-laden material from DuPont's West Virginia Washington Works plant. The panel measured PFOA (also known as C8) serum concentrations in 69,000 individuals from around DuPont's Washington Works Plant and found a mean concentration of 83 ng/mL, compared to 4 ng/mL in a standard population of Americans. This panel reported probable links between elevated PFOA blood concentration and hypercholesterolemia , ulcerative colitis , thyroid disease , testicular cancer , kidney cancer as well as pregnancy-induced hypertension and preeclampsia . The severity of PFAS-associated health effects can vary based on

2660-571: The Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants since 2009, with some jurisdictions, such as China and the European Union , planning further reductions and phase-outs. However, major producers and users such as the United States, Israel, and Malaysia have not ratified the agreement and the chemical industry has lobbied governments to reduce regulations or has moved production to countries such as Thailand, where there

2736-624: The United States Environmental Protection Agency pressured the U.S. Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry to suppress a study that showed PFASs to be even more dangerous than previously thought. In 2024, research at McGill University in Quebec, indicated that PFASs were being brought to the Arctic from polluted southern waters by migrating birds. Although it is much less than compared to

2812-688: The male infertility crisis . A report in 2023 by the Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai linked high exposure to PFAS with a 40% decrease in the ability for a woman to have a successful pregnancy as well as hormone disruption and delayed puberty onset. A meta-analysis for associations between PFASs and human clinical biomarkers for liver injury, analyzing PFAS effects on liver biomarkers and histological data from rodent experimental studies, concluded that evidence exists that PFOA, perfluorohexanesulfonic acid (PFHxS), and perfluorononanoic acid (PFNA) caused hepatotoxicity in humans. PFOA

2888-624: The 1970s. In 1999, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency began investigating perfluorinated compounds after receiving data on the global distribution and toxicity of PFOS, the key ingredient in Scotchgard . For these reasons, and USEPA pressure, the primary American producer of PFOS, 3M , announced, in May 2000, the phaseout of the production of PFOS, PFOA, and PFOS-related products. Most other manufacturers (particularly, those in Europe) phased out

2964-461: The EPA's lifetime drinking water health advisories as well as comparable Danish, Dutch, and European Union safety standards, leading to the conclusion that "the global spread of these four PFAAs in the atmosphere has led to the planetary boundary for chemical pollution being exceeded". It had been thought that PFAAs would eventually end up in the oceans, where they would be diluted over decades, but

3040-546: The EPA's monitoring programs showed freshwater fish ubiquitously contain high levels of harmful PFAS, with a single serving typically significantly increasing the blood PFOS level. Bioaccumulation and biomagnification of PFASs in marine species throughout the food web, particularly frequently consumed fish and shellfish, can have important impacts on human populations. PFASs have been frequently documented in both fish and shellfish that are commonly consumed by human populations, which poses health risks to humans and studies on

3116-514: The PFOS molecule using short chain (often 2-carbon) precursors and adding a sulfonate group as a final step. This production process results in 100% linear PFOS. This production method, whilst cleaner and resulting in a much purer product than ECF, is not known to have been widely used except for the production of reagent grade PFOS and analytical standards. Perfluorooctylsulfonyl compounds degrade to PFOS. Examples include N -methyl perfluorooctane sulfonamidoethanol  [ de ] ( N -MeFOSE),

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3192-505: The South and East) Europe. Within the same country, boys had a higher PFOS concentrations than girls. A typical PFOS blood concentration range in this study was 1,500-2,500 ppb . Much higher levels of blood PFOS (12,830 ppb ) have been reported in people with occupational exposure —or possibly 1,656 parts per billion—in a consumer. Occupationally exposed individuals may have an average level of PFOS over 1000 parts per billion, and

3268-758: The U.S. EPA announced that it will develop national drinking water standards for PFOA and PFOS. In October 2021 the EPA proposed to designate PFOA and PFOS as hazardous substances in its PFAS Strategic Roadmap. In September 2022 the EPA proposed to designate as hazardous substances under the Superfund Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act of 1980 (CERCLA). 3M">3M The requested page title contains unsupported characters : ">". Return to Main Page . Fluorosurfactant Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances ( PFAS or PFASs ) are

3344-813: The areas concerned: eggs (up to 37,100 ng/kg), fish (18,600 ng/kg) spinach and radicchio (only one sampling carried out), kiwis, melons, watermelons, cereals (only one sample was analyzed), soy, wines and apples. A study of public water bodies ending in March 2022 showed that the sum of PFOS and PFOA concentrations exceeded 50 ng/L in 81 out of 1,133 test sites and in some cases are present at elevated levels in blood. This has led to pressure to increase regulations. Highly contaminated drinking water has been detected at several locations in Sweden. Such locations include Arvidsjaur, Lulnäset, Uppsala and Visby. In 2013, PFAS were detected at high concentrations in one of

3420-404: The availability of alternatives. The proposal has not assessed the use of PFAS in medicines, plant protection products, and biocides because specific regulations apply to those substances (Biocidal Products Regulation, Plant Protection Products Regulation , Medicinal Products Regulation) that have an explicit authorization procedure that focuses on risk for health and the environment. The proposal

3496-510: The bioaccumulation in certain species are important to determine daily tolerable limits for human consumption, and where those limits may be exceeded causing potential health risks. This has particular implications for populations that consume larger numbers of wild fish and shellfish species. PFAS contamination has also resulted in disruptions to the food supply, such as closures and limits on fishing. Fluorosurfactants with shorter carbon chains may be less prone to accumulating in mammals; there

3572-646: The blood of exposed industrial workers, but cited no ill health effects. These results were consistent with the measured serum concentrations of PFOS and PFOA in 3M plant workers ranging from 0.04 to 10.06 ppm and 0.01 to 12.70 ppm, respectively, well below toxic and carcinogenic levels cited in animal studies. Given, however, the serum elimination half-life of four to five years and widespread environmental contamination, molecules have been shown to accumulate in humans sufficiently to cause adverse health outcomes. In 2022, levels of at least four perfluoroalkyl acids (PFAAs) in rain water worldwide greatly exceeded

3648-651: The body for several years. It is estimated that it takes 4 years for half of this substance to be eliminated from the body. PFOS is detected in the blood serum of almost all people in the U.S., but concentrations have been decreasing over time. In contrast, PFOS blood levels appear to be rising in China where PFOS production continues. A study of ca. 2000 teenagers from 9 European countries with most samples collected in years 2016-2018 found higher blood concentrations of several PFOS’s in those, who consumed more seafood, eggs or offal , as well as in those from North and West (versus

3724-494: The following uses—in addition to a range of specific exemptions (time-limited): In 2019, it was decided to only keep one acceptable purpose: In 2023, the Government of Canada is considering addressing PFAS as a class rather than as individual substances or in smaller groups. A report to conclude that PFAS as a class are harmful to human health and the environment, and to define risk management aspects and alternatives to PFAs,

3800-584: The form of maximum contaminant levels (MCLs), lowering acceptable levels from the 2018 enforceable groundwater cleanup levels of 70 ppt to 8 ppt for PFOA and 16 ppt for PFOS and adding MCLs for 5 previously unregulated PFAS compounds PFNA , PFHxA , PFHxS , PFBS , and HFPO-DA . In 2020, a California bill was passed banning PFOS and the following salts as an intentionally added ingredient from cosmetics: ammonium perfluorooctane sulfonate, diethanolamine perfluorooctane sulfonate, lithium perfluorooctane sulfonate and potassium perfluorooctane sulfonate. In March 2021

3876-503: The group. The EPA toxicity database, DSSTox, lists 14,735 unique PFAS chemical compounds. An early definition required that they contain at least one perfluoroalkyl moiety , −C n F 2 n +1 . Beginning in 2021, the OECD expanded its terminology, stating that "PFAS are defined as fluorinated substances that contain at least one fully fluorinated methyl or methylene carbon atom (without any H/Cl/Br/I atom attached to it), i.e., with

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3952-470: The health dangers since the 1970s – DuPont and 3M were aware that PFAS was "highly toxic when inhaled and moderately toxic when ingested". External costs , including those associated with remediation of PFAS from soil and water contamination, treatment of related diseases, and monitoring of PFAS pollution, may be as high as US$ 17.5 trillion annually, according to ChemSec . The Nordic Council of Ministers estimated health costs to be at least €52–84 billion in

4028-476: The health of Canadians, including children, over a lifetime's exposure to these substances. The maximum allowable concentration for PFOS under the guidelines is 0.0002 milligrams per liter. The maximum allowable concentration for PFOA is 0.0006 milligrams per liter. In August 2024, Health Canada established an objective of 30 ng/L for the sum of the concentration of 25 PFASs detected in drinking water. The New Zealand Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has banned

4104-420: The highest recorded values as of January 2006 are listed below. Despite the global wide-ranging restriction, PFOS concentrations in air continued to increase at many monitoring stations between 2009 and 2017. There is a growing body of research investigating the health effects of PFOS in humans and animals, including the reproductive, developmental, liver, kidney, thyroid, and immunological effects. According to

4180-588: The insulation of electrical wire. PFAS are also used by the cosmetic industry in most cosmetics and personal care products , including lipstick , eye liner , mascara , foundation , concealer , lip balm , blush , and nail polish . Many PFAS such as PFOS and PFOA pose health and environmental concerns because they are persistent organic pollutants ; they were branded as " forever chemicals " in an article in The Washington Post in 2018. Some have half-lives of over eight years due to

4256-491: The introduction by wind and the oceans, the birds become vectors, transmitting the toxic chemicals. Rainer Lohmann, an oceanographer at the University of Rhode Island , noted that this has a significant localized affect that is devastating for Arctic predators who accumulate toxins in their bodies because the contaminants from the birds often enter the food chain directly since the birds are the prey of many species. In 2017,

4332-734: The large number of PFAS, it is challenging to study and assess the potential human health and environmental risks; more research is necessary and is ongoing. Exposure to PFAS, some of which have been classified as carcinogenic and/or as endocrine disruptors , has been linked to cancers such as kidney , prostate and testicular cancer , ulcerative colitis , thyroid disease , suboptimal antibody response / decreased immunity, decreased fertility, hypertensive disorders in pregnancy, reduced infant and fetal growth and developmental issues in children, obesity, dyslipidemia (abnormally high cholesterol ), and higher rates of hormone interference. The use of PFAS has been regulated internationally by

4408-469: The length of exposure, level of exposure, and health status. Exposure to PFAS is a risk factor for various hypertensive disorders in pregnancy, including preeclampsia and high blood pressure . It is not clear whether PFAS exposure is associated with wider cardiovascular disorders during pregnancy. Human breast milk can harbor PFASs, which can be transferred from mother to infant via breastfeeding. Endocrine disruptors , including PFASs, are linked with

4484-455: The log-transformed concentrations of PFAS against the assigned trophic level and taking the antilog of the regression slope (10 ). In a study done on a macrotidal estuary in Gironde, SW France, TMFs exceeded one for nearly all 19 PFAS compounds considered in the study and were particularly high for PFOA and PFNA (6.0 and 3.1 respectively). A TMF greater than one signifies that accumulation in

4560-439: The maximum tolerable limit of PFAS that can be taken through the diet, the region has not carried out new assessments or implemented concrete actions to protect the population and the agri-food and livestock sectors. Some limits were added to monitoring the geographical area, which does not include the orange zone and other areas affected by contamination, as well as the insufficiency of analysis on important productions widespread in

4636-547: The organism is greater than that of the medium, with the medium being seawater in this case. PFOS, a long-chain sulfonic acid, was found at the highest concentrations relative to other PFASs measured in fish and birds in northern seas such as the Barents Sea and the Canadian Arctic. A study published in 2023 analyzing 500 composite samples of fish fillets collected across the United States from 2013 to 2015 under

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4712-400: The other hand, precursors are transformed to PFOS in waste water treatment plants. The C 8 F 17 subunit of PFOS is hydrophobic and lipophobic , like other fluorocarbons , while the sulfonic acid / sulfonate group adds polarity. PFOS is an exceptionally stable compound in industrial applications and in the environment because of the effect of aggregate carbon–fluorine bonds . PFOS is

4788-446: The phase interfaces . Fluorocarbons are both lipophobic and hydrophobic, repelling both oil and water. Their lipophobicity results from the relative lack of London dispersion forces compared to hydrocarbons, a consequence of fluorine's large electronegativity and small bond length, which reduce the polarizability of the surfactants' fluorinated molecular surface. Fluorosurfactants are more stable than hydrocarbon surfactants due to

4864-511: The possibility that highly exposed people and wildlife are immunocompromised . Chicken eggs dosed at 1 milligram per kilogram (or 1 part per million) of egg weight developed into juvenile chickens with an average of ~150 parts per billion in blood serum—and showed brain asymmetry and decreased immunoglobulin levels. It was added to Annex B of the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants in May 2009. Originally, parties agreed on acceptable proposes (time-unlimited exemptions) for

4940-793: The potential to impact several birth outcomes. PFOS has been measured in breastmilk and is estimated to contribute the greatest level of PFOS exposure in infants. Specifically, the duration of breastfeeding has been shown to be associated with increases in PFOS in infants. Some evidence has shown that breastmilk provides more than 94% of the PFOS exposure in infants up to six months old. The Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR) concluded that breastfeeding benefits continue to outweigh potential risks associated with PFOS in breastmilk. Increased levels of PFOS have been shown to accumulate in thyroid gland cells and have been associated with altered thyroid hormone levels in adults. Appropriate levels of thyroid hormone during pregnancy are critical for

5016-547: The pregnancy-related outcomes from PFOS exposure including such as intrauterine growth development, low birth weight, preterm birth labor, and preeclampsia. Additional physiological mechanisms may include disruption in inflammatory signals during pregnancy, decreased trophoblast signaling and trophoblast migration. Additionally, PFOS exposure has been shown to be related to the downregulation genes corresponding to growth factors, pregnancy-related signal transducers, and maternal hormones. PFOS impact on thyroid hormone regulation also has

5092-526: The production of PFOS and perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) in 2000 and 2006, respectively. A shorter-chain PFOS ( perfluorohexanesulfonic acid , PFHxS), was included in Annex A to the Stockholm Convention in 2022. Currently, most of PFOS and PFOS-related chemicals are produced in China. The main method used for the industrial scale production of PFOS is electrochemical fluorination (ECF). ECF

5168-657: The proposed restriction. Within a year of publication, the opinions are sent to the European Commission, which makes a final proposal that is submitted to the EU Member States for discussion and decision. Eighteen months after the publication of the restriction decision (which may differ from the original proposal), it will enter into force. 127,000 residents in the Veneto region are estimated to have been exposed to contamination through tap water, and it

5244-713: The stability of the carbon–fluorine bond . Perfluorinated surfactants persist in the environment for the same reason. Fluorosurfactants such as PFOS, PFOA, and perfluorononanoic acid (PFNA) have caught the attention of regulatory agencies because of their persistence, toxicity, and widespread occurrence in the blood of general populations. PFASs are used in emulsion polymerization to produce fluoropolymers , used in stain repellents, polishes, paints, and coatings . PFASs were originally considered to be chemically inert . Early occupational studies revealed elevated levels of fluorochemicals, including perfluorooctanesulfonic acid (PFOS) and perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA, C8), in

5320-424: The total cholesterol and low density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol. Serum levels of PFOS were found to be associated with increased risk of chronic kidney disease in the general US population. "This association was independent of confounders such as age, sex, race/ethnicity, body mass index , diabetes, hypertension, and serum cholesterol level." Research demonstrating the association between PFOS and cancer

5396-446: The two municipality drinking water treatment plants in the town of Ronneby, in southern Sweden. Concentrations of PFHxS and PFOS were found at 1700 ng/L and 8000 ng/L, respectively. The source of contamination was later found to be a military fire-fighting exercise site in which PFAS containing fire-fighting foam had been used since the mid-1980s. Additionally, low-level contaminated drinking water has also been shown to be

5472-526: The use of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) in cosmetic products starting from 31 December 2026. This will make the country one of the first in the world to take this step on PFAS to protect people and the environment. The environmental consequences of PFAS, especially from firefighting activities, have been recognized since the mid-1990s and came to prominence after the Buncefield explosion on 11 December 2005. The Environment Agency has undertaken

5548-425: The water, or directly via their diet. It accumulates namely in areas with high protein content, in the blood and liver, but it is also found to a lesser extent in tissues. Biomagnification can be described using the estimation of the trophic magnification factor (TMF), which describes the relationship between the contamination levels in a species and their trophic level in the food web. TMFs are determined by graphing

5624-607: Was allocated for works at HMAS Albatross , RAAF Base Amberley , RAAF Base Pearce and RAAF Base Richmond including funding to remediate PFAS contamination. Although PFASs are not manufactured in Canada, they may be present in imported goods and products. In 2008, products containing PFOS as well as PFOA were banned in Canada, with exceptions for products used in firefighting, the military, and some forms of ink and photo media. Health Canada has published drinking water guidelines for maximum concentrations of PFOS and PFOA to protect

5700-670: Was exempted. In 2009 this directive was incorporated into the REACH regulation. In the summer of 2010 PFOS was added to the regulation on persistent organic pollutants and the threshold was lowered to max. 0.001% by weight (10 mg/kg). In 2018 the State of Michigan established a legally enforceable groundwater cleanup level of 70 ppt for both PFOA and PFOS. In 2020 the Michigan Department of Environment, Great Lakes, and Energy (EGLE) adopted stricter drinking water standards in

5776-477: Was submitted on 13 January 2023 and published by the European Chemicals Agency (ECHA) on 7 February. From 22 March to 21 September, citizens, companies, and other organizations commented on the proposal during a public consultation. Based on the information in the restriction proposal and the consultation, two committees from ECHA formulate an opinion on the risk and socio-economic aspects of

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