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77-724: The voivodeship was created 1434, out of former Duchy of Podolia , which had become part of the Kingdom of Poland in the second half of the 14th century. After the Second Partition of Poland , it was seized by the Russian Empire , which in 1793 created the Podolia Governorate . Today the region belongs to Ukraine. Zygmunt Gloger in his monumental book Historical Geography of the Lands of Old Poland gives

154-636: A body of national literature, institute a Ukrainian-language educational system, and form an independent state (the Ukrainian People's Republic , shortly joined by the West Ukrainian People's Republic ). During this brief independent statehood the stature and use of Ukrainian greatly improved. In the Russian Empire Census of 1897 the following picture emerged, with Ukrainian being the second most spoken language of

231-620: A city — -fortress city with a castle and city fortifications. At the same time, Kamyanets received from the Knyazs of Yuriy and Oleksandr Magdeburg rights . His successor became Brother Oleksander, who had previously owned Volodymyr and Krimets. After the death in the 1370th, Casimir III, his sister's son Louis I of Hungary , became King of Galicia–Volhynia after Congress of Visegrád (1339) . In 1372, he handed power over Galicia to his governor — Silesian Knyaz Vladislaus II of Opole (1372 — 1379, 1385 — 1387). 1377 — Knyaz Oleksander and Boris, as

308-592: A closer lexical distance to West Slavic Polish and South Slavic Bulgarian . Ukrainian is a descendant of Old East Slavic , a language spoken in the medieval state of Kievan Rus' . In the Grand Duchy of Lithuania , the language developed into Ruthenian , where it became an official language, before a process of Polonization began in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth . By the 18th century, Ruthenian diverged into regional variants, and

385-470: A detailed description of Podole Voivodeship: In ancient times, Podole was a borderland of permanent Slavic settlements, behind which were steppes , inhabited by nomadic tribes. Proximity of these Barbaric tribes made it impossible for the Slavs to take full advantage of Podole, which is the most beautiful and the richest of all Slavic lands (...) For many years borders of Podole were not defined. The province

462-818: A gradual change of the Old East Slavic vowel system into the system found in modern Ukrainian began approximately in the 12th/13th century (that is, still at the time of the Kievan Rus') with a lengthening and raising of the Old East Slavic mid vowels e and o when followed by a consonant and a weak yer vowel that would eventually disappear completely, for example Old East Slavic котъ /kɔtə/ > Ukrainian кіт /kit/ 'cat' (via transitional stages such as /koˑtə̆/, /kuˑt(ə̆)/, /kyˑt/ or similar) or Old East Slavic печь /pʲɛtʃʲə/ > Ukrainian піч /pitʃ/ 'oven' (via transitional stages such as /pʲeˑtʃʲə̆/, /pʲiˑtʃʲ/ or similar). This raising and other phonological developments of

539-826: A joint attack on the Kingdom of Galicia–Volhynia. After his poisoning in 1340, the struggle for the Earth of the Galician—Vladimir state was dispersed between the Grand Duke Volynsky, Liubartas and the Polish King Casimir III the Great . 1349 King Casimir III captured Galician land. In April 1350, the Louis I of Hungary concluded with Kazimir III, by which Hungary "retreated its hereditary rights" to

616-579: A large majority of Ukrainians . Written Ukrainian uses the Ukrainian alphabet , a variant of the Cyrillic script . The standard language is studied by the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine and Potebnia Institute of Linguistics . Comparisons are often made between Ukrainian and Russian , another East Slavic language, yet there is more mutual intelligibility with Belarusian , and

693-648: A policy of defending Ukraine's interests within the Soviet Union. He proudly promoted the beauty of the Ukrainian language and developed plans to expand the role of Ukrainian in higher education. He was removed, however, after only a brief tenure, for being too lenient on Ukrainian nationalism. The new party boss from 1972 to 1989, Volodymyr Shcherbytsky , purged the local party, was fierce in suppressing dissent, and insisted Russian be spoken at all official functions, even at local levels. His policy of Russification

770-565: A result of close Slavic contacts with the remnants of the Scythian and Sarmatian population north of the Black Sea , lasting into the early Middle Ages , the appearance of the voiced fricative γ/г (romanized "h"), in modern Ukrainian and some southern Russian dialects is explained by the assumption that it initially emerged in Scythian and related eastern Iranian dialects, from earlier common Proto-Indo-European *g and *gʰ . During

847-830: A result of the military campaign of the Hungarian King Louis on the Galicia–Volhynia lands, recognized the volatile dependence on him, evidence of which is found a coin of Podilsky half—money depicted with a picture on the reverse of the Anjou coat of arms, a coin in Smotrych, the first capital of the Podilsky principality. The "duets" of the senior cortices were several: Yuri and Oleksander, Oleksander and Boris, Boris and Constantine, Constantine and Fedor, and Fedor and Vasyl. With this tradition, coins recently attributed to

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924-644: A self-aware Ukrainian nation would threaten the unity of the empire. In 1804 Ukrainian as a subject and language of instruction was banned from schools. In 1811, by order of the Russian government, the Kyiv-Mohyla Academy was closed. In 1847 the Brotherhood of St Cyril and Methodius was terminated. The same year Taras Shevchenko was arrested, exiled for ten years, and banned for political reasons from writing and painting. In 1862 Pavlo Chubynsky

1001-587: A smotful mastery. The coins were patterned according to "Galicia–Volhynia money", which were malled in Lviv, and had the name of "Podilsky half — seals". Another known coin is P.K. — Podilsky Denarium of Knyaz Fedor Koriatovich ruled in 1388 — 1393. The coin has a size of 12x13.5 mm, mass 0.30 g, 0.600 silver sample. With the death of Louis Hungarian, his elder daughter Maria became the titular queen of Hungary (1382 — 1395), and Galicia and Vladimiria (1382 — 1387). The younger daughter of Yadviga received Poland, where

1078-890: A variant name of the Little Russian language . In a private letter from 1854, Taras Shevchenko lauds "our splendid Ukrainian language". Valuyev's decree from 1863 derides the "Little Russian" language throughout, but also mentions "the so-called Ukrainian language" once. In Galicia, the earliest applications of the term Ukrainian to the language were in the hyphenated names Ukrainian-Ruthenian (1866, by Paulin Święcicki ) or Ruthenian-Ukrainian (1871, by Panteleimon Kulish and Ivan Puluj ), with non-hyphenated Ukrainian language appearing shortly thereafter (in 1878, by Mykhailo Drahomanov ). A following ban on Ukrainian books led to Alexander II 's secret Ems Ukaz , which prohibited publication and importation of most Ukrainian-language books, public performances and lectures, and even banned

1155-646: Is based on the character of contemporary written sources, ultimately reflecting socio-historical developments, and he further subdivides the Middle period into three phases: Ukraine annually marks the Day of Ukrainian Writing and Language on 9 November, the Eastern Orthodox feast day of Nestor the Chronicler . The era of Kievan Rus' ( c. 880–1240) is the subject of some linguistic controversy, as

1232-675: The Galicia–Volhynia Wars , in 1366 Yuriy Koriatovich of Gediminids along with his brother succeeded in unknown way over the duchy as a vassal of the Polish crown. In 1377, the duchy became a fiefdom after the King of Hungary Louis I of Hungary conducted a military raid on Ruthenian lands. After the death of King Louis, the Koriatovich brothers actively participated in electing Jogaila as King of Poland , yet kept their fief loyalty to

1309-570: The Golden Horde invasion in 1238, the main part of Podolia was tapped. In 1257, a campaign was held by the troops of the Kingdom of Galicia–Volhynia in Boheshkov land, which was an attempt to restore control over Podolia. The territory of the principality covered the land from intermittent of Strypa and Zolota in the west to the Dnieper in the east; in the southeast, the natural line was

1386-723: The Latin language. Much of the influence of Poland on the development of the Ukrainian language has been attributed to this period and is reflected in multiple words and constructions used in everyday Ukrainian speech that were taken from Polish or Latin. Examples of Polish words adopted from this period include zavzhdy (always; taken from old Polish word zawżdy ) and obitsiaty (to promise; taken from Polish obiecać ) and from Latin (via Polish) raptom (suddenly) and meta (aim or goal). Significant contact with Tatars and Turks resulted in many Turkic words, particularly those involving military matters and steppe industry, being adopted into

1463-569: The Novgorod Republic did not call themselves Rus ' until the 14th century; earlier Novgorodians reserved the term Rus ' for the Kiev , Pereyaslavl and Chernigov principalities. At the same time as evidenced by contemporary chronicles, the ruling princes and kings of Galicia–Volhynia and Kiev called themselves "people of Rus ' " (in foreign sources called " Ruthenians "), and Galicia–Volhynia has alternately been called

1540-806: The Sejm were elected, as well as two deputies to the Lesser Poland Tribunal at Lublin (...) Podole Voivodeship had two border judges, who cooperated with officials of the Ottoman Porte , solving border conflicts. Voivodeship Governor ( voivode ) seat: General council ( sejmik generalny ) for all Ruthenian lands Regional council (sejmik poselski i deputacki) seats: 48°40′23″N 26°35′10″E  /  48.673019°N 26.586080°E  / 48.673019; 26.586080 Duchy of Podolia Duchy of Podolia ( Ukrainian : Подільське князівство , Polish : Księstwo podolskie )

1617-454: The law of Ukraine "On protecting the functioning of the Ukrainian language as the state language" was approved by the parliament, formalizing rules governing the usage of the language and introducing penalties for violations. The literary Ukrainian language, which was preceded by Old East Slavic literature, may be subdivided into two stages: during the 12th to 18th centuries what in Ukraine

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1694-425: The 11th–12th century, but started becoming more similar to them around the 13th–15th centuries. The modern Russian language hence developed from the fusion of this Novgorod dialect and the common dialect spoken by the other Kievan Rus', whereas the modern Ukrainian and Belarusian languages developed from dialects which did not differ from each other in a significant way. Ukrainian linguist Stepan Smal-Stotsky denies

1771-456: The 13th century, eastern parts of Rus (including Moscow) came under Tatar rule until their unification under the Tsardom of Muscovy , whereas the south-western areas (including Kyiv ) were incorporated into the Grand Duchy of Lithuania . For the following four centuries, the languages of the two regions evolved in relative isolation from each other. Direct written evidence of the existence of

1848-625: The 13th century, when German settlers were invited to Ukraine by the princes of the Kingdom of Ruthenia, German words began to appear in the language spoken in Ukraine. Their influence would continue under Poland not only through German colonists but also through the Yiddish-speaking Jews. Often such words involve trade or handicrafts. Examples of words of German or Yiddish origin spoken in Ukraine include dakh ("roof"), rura ("pipe"), rynok ("market"), kushnir ("furrier"), and majster ("master" or "craftsman"). In

1925-804: The 16th century, Podole Voivodeship had 37 towns, and according to the 1578 census, there were 650 villages. By 1583, the number of villages was reduced to only 434, due to constant Crimean Tatar raids. The voivodeship also had 35 castles and forts (...) Podole Voivodeship had three senators: the Bishop, the Voivode and the Castellan of Kamieniec. Local starosta , who also used the title "General of Podolian Lands", governed two towns, those of Kamieniec and Latyczow. There also were starostas at Czerwonogrod, Bar, Chmielnik, Kopajgrod, Mukarow, Ploskirow and others. Sejmiks took place at Kamieniec, where six deputies to

2002-548: The Coriatovy are not recently attributed to coriaticals, only one of them — Konstantin. Such coins have only a few. On the one hand, it is depicted, on the one hand, Yuri Sorry, from the second — coat of arms Charl I Robert — on the left of white and red stripes of arpades, the right — yellow lilies on the blue shield of the Anjuly Sycolian dynasty; The two — way specialists read the inscription as "Knyaz Konstantin coin,

2079-606: The Cossack motherland, Ukrajina , as a self-appellation for the nation of Ukrainians, and Ukrajins'ka mova for the language. Many writers published works in the Romantic tradition of Europe demonstrating that Ukrainian was not merely a language of the village but suitable for literary pursuits. However, in the Russian Empire expressions of Ukrainian culture and especially language were repeatedly persecuted for fear that

2156-872: The Dniester River. In the south, the border was the limit of the steppe zone, controlled by the Golden Horde. In the north, leashed with Volyn and Kyiv lands. According to Oleksander Guagnini , the Podilsky Region is extensive: from the West goes from the Muntenia and Volos border and extends to the Don River . Here was the Podilsky Ulus of the Golden Horde. And P. Knyazss occupied its land of small Podolia. The last Galicia–Volhynia monarch

2233-710: The Galicia–Volhynia Kingdom lifelong with Casimir III. Karijotas began to master the Podolia after the division of the Galicia–Volhynia Kingdom. In 1362, the Four Brothers of Koriyovichiv, Oleksander, Yuriy, Konstantin, and Fedor, participated in the troops of Stryka (Uncle Father) — Grand Duke Algirdas — in the Battle of Blue Waters . In 1363, according to his brothers, their possessions in Podillia and

2310-690: The King of Hungary. After a conquest of Podolie by Grand Duke of Vytautas in 1394, the Duchy of Podolia was granted on ducal rights (ius ducalis) to the Voivode of Krakow Spytko II of Melsztyn . Following the death of the last at the battle of Vorskla in 1399, King of Poland Jogaila granted the land to his brother Knyaz Svitrigaila . In 1401, Svitrigaila fled to the Teutonic Order . In 1403, Koriatovich's brother completely surrendered any claims for

2387-497: The King of Kazimir III. Since then, the rulers of the Podilsky principality have been a couple—the eldest, followed by the Knyaz (Dumvirat). In 1372, Knyaz Yuriy was invited to take the throne in the neighboring Principality of Moldavia ; he was up to 1377 when he was poisoned in contemporary local boyars (buried in the monastery near the city of Birlad ). In 1374, he suffered the capital of Podillya from Smotrych to Kamyanets and built

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2464-549: The Orthodox church spoke Ruthenian. The 1654 Pereiaslav Agreement between Cossack Hetmanate and Alexis of Russia divided Ukraine between the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and the Tsardom of Russia. During the following century, both monarchies became increasingly intolerant of Ukrainian own cultural and political aspirations. Ukrainians found themselves in a colonial situation. The Russian centre adopted

2541-486: The Podilsky principality were formed. Brothers were the co-rulers of this principality: Yuri kept Kamyanets , and Konstantin — Smotrych . Fedor, at this time, was in Hungary. In 1371, Olexander Koriyovich returned to Podolia. The first rulers were Knyazs Yuriy and Oleksander Karijotas, who, until 1366, performed on the side of Gediminids . Also known are the other brothers of Coria: Boris and Vasil (Semen Yuriyovich, as

2618-521: The Polish nobility. Many Ukrainian nobles learned the Polish language and converted to Catholicism during that period in order to maintain their lofty aristocratic position. Lower classes were less affected because literacy was common only in the upper class and clergy. The latter were also under significant Polish pressure after the Union with the Catholic Church . Most of the educational system

2695-542: The Principality or Kingdom of Ruthenia. Also according to Andrey Zaliznyak, the Novgorodian dialect differed significantly from that of other dialects of Kievan Rus during the 11th–12th century, but started becoming more similar to them around 13th–15th centuries. The modern Russian language hence developed from the fusion of this Novgorodian dialect and the common dialect spoken by the other Kievan Rus, whereas

2772-557: The Russian Empire. According to the Imperial census's terminology, the Russian language ( Русскій ) was subdivided into Ukrainian (Малорусскій, ' Little Russian '), what is known as Russian today (Великорусскій, ' Great Russian '), and Belarusian (Бѣлорусскій, 'White Russian'). The following table shows the distribution of settlement by native language ( "по родному языку" ) in 1897 in Russian Empire governorates ( guberniyas ) that had more than 100,000 Ukrainian speakers. Although in

2849-460: The Soviet Union and a special term, "a language of inter-ethnic communication", was coined to denote its status. After the death of Stalin (1953), a general policy of relaxing the language policies of the past was implemented (1958 to 1963). The Khrushchev era which followed saw a policy of relatively lenient concessions to development of the languages at the local and republic level, though its results in Ukraine did not go nearly as far as those of

2926-519: The Soviet policy of Ukrainianization in the 1920s. Journals and encyclopedic publications advanced in the Ukrainian language during the Khrushchev era, as well as transfer of Crimea under Ukrainian SSR jurisdiction. Yet, the 1958 school reform that allowed parents to choose the language of primary instruction for their children, unpopular among the circles of the national intelligentsia in parts of

3003-551: The USSR, meant that non-Russian languages would slowly give way to Russian in light of the pressures of survival and advancement. The gains of the past, already largely reversed by the Stalin era, were offset by the liberal attitude towards the requirement to study the local languages (the requirement to study Russian remained). Parents were usually free to choose the language of study of their children (except in few areas where attending

3080-564: The Ukrainian language dates to the late 16th century. By the 16th century, a peculiar official language formed: a mixture of the liturgical standardised language of Old Church Slavonic , Ruthenian and Polish . The influence of the latter gradually increased relative to the former two, as the nobility and rural large-landowning class, known as the szlachta , was largely Polish-speaking. Documents soon took on many Polish characteristics superimposed on Ruthenian phonetics. Polish–Lithuanian rule and education also involved significant exposure to

3157-477: The Ukrainian language held the formal position of the principal local language in the Ukrainian SSR . However, practice was often a different story: Ukrainian always had to compete with Russian, and the attitudes of the Soviet leadership towards Ukrainian varied from encouragement and tolerance to de facto banishment. Officially, there was no state language in the Soviet Union until the very end when it

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3234-465: The Ukrainian language. Examples include torba (bag) and tyutyun (tobacco). Because of the substantial number of loanwords from Polish, German, Czech and Latin, early modern vernacular Ukrainian ( prosta mova , " simple speech ") had more lexical similarity with West Slavic languages than with Russian or Church Slavonic. By the mid-17th century, the linguistic divergence between the Ukrainian and Russian languages had become so significant that there

3311-409: The Ukrainian school might have required a long daily commute) and they often chose Russian, which reinforced the resulting Russification. In this sense, some analysts argue that it was not the "oppression" or "persecution", but rather the lack of protection against the expansion of Russian language that contributed to the relative decline of Ukrainian in the 1970s and 1980s. According to this view, it

3388-464: The chancellery and gradually evolved into the Ruthenian language. Polish rule, which came later, was accompanied by a more assimilationist policy. By the 1569 Union of Lublin that formed the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, a significant part of Ukrainian territory was moved from Lithuanian rule to Polish administration, resulting in cultural Polonization and visible attempts to colonize Ukraine by

3465-641: The duchy. In 1434, the duchy was transformed into the Podolian Voivodeship of the Crown of the Kingdom of Poland . Podolia (outdated — the lower reaches) was divided into Western — Dniester and East — Father. Podilsky land (mostly lands inhabited by schools) belonged to the Galician principality and the Grand Duchy of Kyiv . The rulers belonged to the dynasty of Rurikovich . During

3542-407: The existence of a common Old East Slavic language at any time in the past. Similar points of view were shared by Yevhen Tymchenko , Vsevolod Hantsov , Olena Kurylo , Ivan Ohienko and others. According to this theory, the dialects of East Slavic tribes evolved gradually from the common Proto-Slavic language without any intermediate stages during the 6th through 9th centuries. The Ukrainian language

3619-428: The first voivode . Still, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania continued to claim this land, and the conflict was ended by the 1569 Union of Lublin (...) If it had not been for thousands of Polish szlachta families, who since the 14th century settled here, Podole would remain a deserted steppe (...) Boundaries of the new voivodeship were as follows: in northwest it bordered Trembowla County of Ruthenian Voivodeship , in

3696-417: The language of much of the literature was purely or heavily Old Church Slavonic . Some theorists see an early Ukrainian stage in language development here, calling it Old Ruthenian; others term this era Old East Slavic . Russian theorists tend to amalgamate Rus' to the modern nation of Russia, and call this linguistic era Old Russian. However, according to Russian linguist Andrey Zaliznyak (2012), people from

3773-402: The modern Ukrainian and Belarusian languages developed from the dialects which did not differ from each other in a significant way. After the fall of the Kingdom of Ruthenia, Ukrainians mainly fell under the rule of Lithuania and then Poland . Local autonomy of both rule and language was a marked feature of Lithuanian rule. In the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, Old East Slavic became the language of

3850-431: The modern Ukrainian language developed in the territory of present-day Ukraine. Russification saw the Ukrainian language banned as a subject from schools and as a language of instruction in the Russian Empire , and continued in various ways in the Soviet Union . Even so, the language continued to see use throughout the country, and remained particularly strong in Western Ukraine . Specific developments that led to

3927-443: The name Little Russia for Ukraine and Little Russian for the language, an expression that originated in Byzantine Greek and may originally have meant "old, original, fundamental Russia", and had been in use since the 14th century. Ukrainian high culture went into a long period of steady decline. The Kyiv-Mohyla Academy was taken over by the Russian Empire. Most of the remaining Ukrainian schools also switched to Polish or Russian in

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4004-412: The native language for the majority in the nation on the eve of Ukrainian independence, a significant share of ethnic Ukrainians were russified. In Donetsk there were no Ukrainian language schools and in Kyiv only a quarter of children went to Ukrainian language schools. The Russian language was the dominant vehicle, not just of government function, but of the media, commerce, and modernity itself. This

4081-550: The north it bordered Volhynian Voivodeship , while in the east it touched Braclaw Voivodeship . Whole southern and southwestern border went along the Dniestr and the Stypa rivers (...) In its early years, Podole Voivodeship had a number of small counties, which were located around royal castles. In the 15th century, there were counties of Skala Podolska , Smotrycz , Bakota , Latyczow , Miedzyboz , Chmielnik , Zinkow, and Bar . Finally, in 1542 only three counties were established, at Czerwonogrod , Kamieniec and Latyczow (...) In

4158-425: The population said Ukrainian was their native language. Until the 1920s the urban population in Ukraine grew faster than the number of Ukrainian speakers. This implies that there was a (relative) decline in the use of Ukrainian language. For example, in Kyiv, the number of people stating that Ukrainian was their native language declined from 30.3% in 1874 to 16.6% in 1917. During the seven-decade-long Soviet era ,

4235-456: The present-day reflex is /ɣ/. Ahatanhel Krymsky and Aleksey Shakhmatov assumed the existence of the common spoken language of Eastern Slavs only in prehistoric times. According to their point of view, the diversification of the Old East Slavic language took place in the 8th or early 9th century. Russian linguist Andrey Zaliznyak stated that the Old Novgorod dialect differed significantly from that of other dialects of Kievan Rus' during

4312-418: The printing of Ukrainian texts accompanying musical scores. A period of leniency after 1905 was followed by another strict ban in 1914, which also affected Russian-occupied Galicia. For much of the 19th century the Austrian authorities demonstrated some preference for Polish culture, but the Ukrainians were relatively free to partake in their own cultural pursuits in Halychyna and Bukovina , where Ukrainian

4389-429: The probable son of Yuriy Koryatovych, appears once among the witnesses of the document issued by representatives of the older generation). In documents, they protrude either as a couple or alone. In general, this way of government is not something extraordinary for that time. In 1366, the Podilsky principality fell into vassal dependence on the Polish kingdom, and the rulers of Oleksander Koriatovich I Yuri paid tribute to

4466-424: The rules were in 1384 — 1399. After the death of King Louis and Hungarian (1382), Knyazs Boris and Konstantin — Jr. took effective participation in the election of Jagayl to the Royal Prestol and his marriage with the 12—year—old Queen Jadwiga of Poland . About 1389 Fedir Koriyatovich inherited Podillya by the death of older brothers. In 1392, he entered the Union with Svidrigail — at that time Knyaz Vitebsk, which

4543-409: The rural regions of the Ukrainian provinces, 80% of the inhabitants said that Ukrainian was their native language in the Census of 1897 (for which the results are given above), in the urban regions only 32.5% of the population claimed Ukrainian as their native language. For example, in Odesa (then part of the Russian Empire), at the time the largest city in the territory of current Ukraine, only 5.6% of

4620-475: The sixteenth and first half of the 17th century, when Ukraine was part of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, albeit in spite of being part of the PLC, not as a result. Among many schools established in that time, the Kyiv-Mohyla Collegium (the predecessor of the modern Kyiv-Mohyla Academy ), founded by the Orthodox Metropolitan Peter Mogila , was the most important. At that time languages were associated more with religions: Catholics spoke Polish, and members of

4697-462: The term native language may not necessarily associate with the language they use more frequently. The overwhelming majority of ethnic Ukrainians consider the Ukrainian language native , including those who often speak Russian. According to the official 2001 census data, 92.3% of Kyiv region population responded "Ukrainian" to the native language ( ridna mova ) census question, compared with 88.4% in 1989, and 7.2% responded "Russian". In 2019,

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4774-558: The territories controlled by these respective countries, which was followed by a new wave of Polonization and Russification of the native nobility. Gradually the official language of Ukrainian provinces under Poland was changed to Polish, while the upper classes in the Russian part of Ukraine used Russian. During the 19th century, a revival of Ukrainian self-identification manifested in the literary classes of both Russian-Empire Dnieper Ukraine and Austrian Galicia . The Brotherhood of Sts Cyril and Methodius in Kyiv applied an old word for

4851-434: The time, such as the merger of the Old East Slavic vowel phonemes и /i/ and ы /ɨ/ into the specifically Ukrainian phoneme /ɪ ~ e/, spelled with и (in the 13th/14th centuries), and the fricativisation of the Old East Slavic consonant г /g/, probably first to /ɣ/ (in the 13th century), with /ɦ/ as a reflex in Modern Ukrainian, did not happen in Russian. Only the fricativisation of Old East Slavic г /g/ occurred in Belarusian, where

4928-516: The use of Ukrainian. The educational system in Ukraine has been transformed over the first decade of independence from a system that is partly Ukrainian to one that is overwhelmingly so. The government has also mandated a progressively increased role for Ukrainian in the media and commerce. In the 2001 census , 67.5% of the country's population named Ukrainian as their native language (a 2.8% increase from 1989), while 29.6% named Russian (a 3.2% decrease). For many Ukrainians (of various ethnic origins),

5005-424: Was Yuri II Boleslav — the son of the daughter of Yuri I of Galicia Mary and Mazovian Knyaz Troiden I . He settled relations with the Golden Horde. In 1337, he made joint with the Ordin troops campaign to Poland , trying to return captured by Poles in 1303 to Lublin lands . Supporting peace with Lithuania and the Teutonic Order , Yuri II was in a bad relationship with Poland and Hungary , who prepared

5082-420: Was a historical state that previously was a part of Kingdom of Galicia–Volhynia . The principality of Southwest Galicia–Volhynia was formed due to the struggle for the legacy of the Kingdom of Galicia–Volhynia. The Duchy was founded by Knyaz George Koriatovich from the Karijotas house. Following the 14th century partition of the Kingdom between the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania during

5159-469: Was a need for translators during negotiations for the Treaty of Pereyaslav , between Bohdan Khmelnytsky , head of the Zaporozhian Host , and the Russian state. By the 18th century, Ruthenian had diverged into regional variants, developing into the modern Belarusian , Rusyn , and Ukrainian languages. The accepted chronology of Ukrainian divides the language into Old Ukrainian, Middle Ukrainian, and Modern Ukrainian. Shevelov explains that much of this

5236-410: Was also opposed to the policy of Yagaila, aimed at full subordination of the Undyl Principities up to their elimination. Ukrainian language Ukrainian ( українська мова , ukrainska mova , IPA: [ʊkrɐˈjinʲsʲkɐ ˈmɔʋɐ] ) is one of the East Slavic languages in the Indo-European languages family, and it is spoken primarily in Ukraine . It is the first (native) language of

5313-406: Was captured by the Tatars in the 13th century. They in return were chased away by the Lithuanians, who in the mid-14th century clashed here with Poland. Podole was in 1352 captured by Algirdas , and in 1396 King Wladyslaw Jagiello placed this land under Spytek of Melsztyn . Later on, Podole was ruled by Svitrigaila , and finally in 1434 the Sejm created Podole Voivodeship, naming Piotr Odrowaz

5390-490: Was exiled for seven years to Arkhangelsk . The Ukrainian magazine Osnova was discontinued. In 1863, the tsarist interior minister Pyotr Valuyev proclaimed in his decree that "there never has been, is not, and never can be a separate Little Russian language". Although the name of Ukraine is known since 1187, it was not applied to the language until the mid-19th century. The linguonym Ukrainian language appears in Yakub Holovatsky 's book from 1849, listed there as

5467-448: Was formed by convergence of tribal dialects, mostly due to an intensive migration of the population within the territory of today's Ukraine in later historical periods. This point of view was also supported by George Shevelov 's phonological studies, which argue that specific features were already recognizable in the southern dialects of Old East Slavic (seen as ancestors to Ukrainian) as far back as these varieties can be documented. As

5544-471: Was gradually Polonized. In Ruthenia, the language of administrative documents gradually shifted towards Polish. Polish has had heavy influences on Ukrainian (particularly in Western Ukraine ). The southwestern Ukrainian dialects are transitional to Polish. As the Ukrainian language developed further, some borrowings from Tatar and Turkish occurred. Ukrainian culture and language flourished in

5621-562: Was inevitable that successful careers required a good command of Russian, while knowledge of Ukrainian was not vital, so it was common for Ukrainian parents to send their children to Russian-language schools, even though Ukrainian-language schools were usually available. The number of students in Russian-language in Ukraine schools was constantly increasing, from 14 percent in 1939 to more than 30 percent in 1962. The Communist Party leader from 1963 to 1972, Petro Shelest , pursued

5698-490: Was lessened only slightly after 1985. The management of dissent by the local Ukrainian Communist Party was more fierce and thorough than in other parts of the Soviet Union. As a result, at the start of the Mikhail Gorbachev reforms perebudova and hlasnist’ (Ukrainian for perestroika and glasnost ), Ukraine under Shcherbytsky was slower to liberalize than Russia itself. Although Ukrainian still remained

5775-549: Was proclaimed in 1990 that Russian language was the all-Union state language and that the constituent republics had rights to declare additional state languages within their jurisdictions. Still it was implicitly understood in the hopes of minority nations that Ukrainian would be used in the Ukrainian SSR, Uzbek would be used in the Uzbek SSR , and so on. However, Russian was used as the lingua franca in all parts of

5852-400: Was substantially less the case for western Ukraine, which escaped the artificial famine , Great Purge , and most of Stalinism . And this region became the center of a hearty, if only partial, renaissance of the Ukrainian language during independence. Since 1991, Ukrainian has been the official state language in Ukraine, and the state administration implemented government policies to broaden

5929-547: Was widely used in education and official documents. The suppression by Russia hampered the literary development of the Ukrainian language in Dnipro Ukraine, but there was a constant exchange with Halychyna, and many works were published under Austria and smuggled to the east. By the time of the Russian Revolution of 1917 and the collapse of Austro-Hungary in 1918, Ukrainians were ready to openly develop

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