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69-543: Commissioned in 1939 by journalist Loren Pope and his wife Charlotte Pope, the Pope–Leighey House was one of the first Usonian houses designed by Frank Lloyd Wright. It was completed in 1941, located at 1005 Locust Street, Falls Church, Virginia . Loren Pope had become interested in Wright after seeing him on the cover of a 1938 Time Magazine issue, which included an article depicting his work on Fallingwater . In

138-401: A building material typical of modernism, is featured prominently throughout the house. The French doors, along with a strip of clerestory windows , allow natural light and fresh air to enter the home. The windows have a unique pattern which create an effect of patterned light throughout the house. These windows, combined with vents and a concrete floor, enable natural regulation of temperature in

207-1031: A few years after the construction of Rietveld Schröder House , Polish architect Stanisław Brukalski built his own house in Warsaw in 1929 supposedly inspired by Schröder House he had visited. His Polish example of the modern house was awarded bronze medal in Paris world expo in 1937. Just before the Second World War, it was fashionable to build in Poland a lot of large districts of luxury houses in neighbourhoods full of greenery for wealthy Poles like, for example, district Saska Kępa in Warsaw or district Kamienna Góra in seaport Gdynia . The most characteristic features in Polish functionalist architecture 1918–1939 were portholes, roof terraces and marble interiors. Probably

276-429: A flat roof, natural building materials, cantilevered structure (particularly in the carport), and an integration of the outdoors with the indoors. His interest in progressive reform aligned with the belief within modernism that architecture could and should have an impact on social issues. As noted architect Le Corbusier contended, the design and construction of buildings was "at the root of all social unrest," and there

345-422: A house." His final and best-selling work, Colleges That Change Lives , profiled his top 40 choices—schools that he said would "do as much as, and perhaps even more than, any name-brand schools to fully educate students and to give them rich, full lives." He focused mainly on small liberal arts colleges , arguing that smaller, less selective institutions offered superior educational experiences. The first edition

414-484: A loan. The Washington Evening Star lent him $ 5,700 for the project, to be taken out of his weekly salary. Mindful of the Popes' financial limitations, Wright scaled down the plan from 1,800 square feet to 1,200 square feet. The house ultimately cost $ 7,000, which was a remarkably low price for Wright design, but was in keeping with Wright's desire to provide middle-class Americans with accessible housing. Frank Lloyd Wright

483-528: A man wants during life, and, of life. Material things and things of the spirit. The writer has one fervent wish that includes both. It is a house created by you." Wright agreed to design a home for the Popes. Pope traveled to Wisconsin to visit Wright at his Taliesin estate to discuss the plans for the new house. Pope was making $ 50 per week as a copy editor for the Washington Evening Star , and in his letter to Wright, Pope indicated that he

552-418: A mission to raise students' trajectories and develop thinkers, leaders, and moral citizens. The little-known truth is that these colleges have been on the cutting edge of higher education for decades. Many of them have outperformed most of the ranking sweethearts in the percentages of graduates who become America's scientists and scholars." Functionalism (architecture) In architecture , functionalism

621-604: A new home until 1959, at which point Wright was already busy with the Guggenheim Museum in New York. In 1964, the Virginia Department of Highways declared that the house would be condemned to make way for Interstate 66 , offering a condemnation award of $ 25,605. Robert had died in 1963, leaving Marjorie to address the fate of the house herself. Marjorie refused the condemnation award, instead donating

690-418: A synonym for 'gauche'. For 70 years the influential American architect Philip Johnson held that the profession has no functional responsibility whatsoever, and this is one of the many views today. The position of postmodern architect Peter Eisenman is based on a user-hostile theoretical basis and even more extreme: "I don't do function." Popular notions of modern architecture are heavily influenced by

759-497: Is Cherokee Red, one of Wright's signature colors. There is a cantilevered carport above the driveway. Cantilevered structures are a motif throughout Wright's designs. The furniture was also designed by Wright, and was included with the property when the Popes purchased it. The furniture was designed as part of the house, which reflects the Usonian principle that housing should be rational and livable, not merely decorative. To Wright,

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828-681: Is a machine for living in"; his 1923 book Vers une architecture was, and still is, very influential, and his early built work such as the Villa Savoye in Poissy , France , is thought of as prototypically function. The former Czechoslovakia was an early adopter of the functionalist style, with notable examples such as Villa Tugendhat in Brno , designed by Mies van der Rohe in 1928, Villa Müller in Prague , designed by Adolf Loos in 1930, and

897-593: Is an unofficial name of type of low-cost, concrete- paneled or brick three- to five-storied apartment building which was developed in the Soviet Union during the early 1960s, during the time its namesake Nikita Khrushchev directed the Soviet government. The apartment buildings also went by the name of "Khruschoba" ( Хрущёв+трущоба , Khrushchev-slum). The development of functionalism in landscape architecture paralleled its development in building architecture. At

966-401: Is the principle that buildings should be designed based solely on their purpose and function. An international functionalist architecture movement emerged in the wake of World War I , as part of the wave of Modernism . Its ideas were largely inspired by a desire to build a new and better world for the people, as broadly and strongly expressed by the social and political movements of Europe after

1035-449: The 1930 Stockholm Exhibition , under the guidance of director and Swedish architect Gunnar Asplund . Enthusiastic architects collected their ideas and inspirations in the manifesto acceptera and in the years thereafter, a functionalist architecture emerged throughout Scandinavia. The genre involves some peculiar features unique to Scandinavia and it is often referred to as "funkis", to distinguish it from functionalism in general. Some of

1104-601: The Bauhaus -style architecture that was emerging concurrently in Germany. Large urban extensions to Brno in particular contain numerous apartment buildings in the functionalist style, while the domestic interiors of Adolf Loos in Plzeň are also notable for their application of functionalist principles. In Scandinavia and Finland, the international movement and ideas of modernist architecture became widely known among architects at

1173-499: The Garden city movement . Zlín's distinctive architecture was guided by principles that were strictly observed during its whole inter-war development. Its central theme was the derivation of all architectural elements from the factory buildings. The central position of the industrial production in the life of all Zlín inhabitants was to be highlighted. Hence the same building materials (red bricks, glass, reinforced concrete) were used for

1242-556: The Vitruvian triad , where utilitas (variously translated as 'commodity', 'convenience', or 'utility') stands alongside firmitas (firmness) and venustas (beauty) as one of three classic goals of architecture. Functionalist views were typical of some Gothic Revival architects. In particular, Augustus Welby Pugin wrote that "there should be no features about a building which are not necessary for convenience, construction, or propriety" and "all ornament should consist of enrichment of

1311-581: The 1930s, when the conception of the house began to take shape, Wright had acquired an image of an architect who designed houses for the stylish and affluent. Motivated by a desire to change this image, as well as by a sincere interest in social reform, Wright developed an architectural style specifically accessible to and intended for the American middle-class called Usonian architecture. As the United States began to grow rapidly, architects imagined what

1380-595: The CIAM IV ), Roman Piotrowski and Maciej Nowicki . Le Corbusier said about Poles ( When the Cathedrals Were White , Paris 1937) "Academism has sent down roots everywhere. Nevertheless, the Dutch are relatively free of bias. The Czechs believe in 'modern' and the Polish also." Other Polish architects like Stanisław Brukalski was meeting with Gerrit Rietveld and inspired by him and his neoplasticism . Only

1449-773: The Ivy League: Finding the College That’s Right for You (Penguin, 1995), was written and published several years later. Pope was also known for commissioning the Pope-Leighey House in 1939, designed and constructed originally in Falls Church, Virginia , by Frank Lloyd Wright . Pope, who was working as a $ 50-a-week copy editor at the Washington Evening Star (his employer financed the construction), convinced Wright to build

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1518-701: The Nordic version of functionalist architecture, in particular in buildings from the 1930s, and carried over into modernist architecture when industrial serial production became much more prevalent after World War II. As most architectural styles, Nordic funkis was international in its scope and several architects designed Nordic funkis buildings throughout the region. Some of the most active architects working internationally with this style, includes Edvard Heiberg , Arne Jacobsen and Alvar Aalto . Nordic funkis features prominently in Scandinavian urban architecture, as

1587-454: The appliances, furniture, and decor. One primary tenet of modernism was functionalism , which held that the form of architecture should follow function. This meant that the design of a building should revolve solely around its purpose, as opposed to any particular aesthetic, and that a complete concentration on function would inevitably result in beauty. Functionalism represented a pivotal shift away from tradition, which had previously held that

1656-421: The article, Wright expressed a desire to design homes for middle-class Americans, in keeping with his interest in using architecture as a tool for progressive social reform. Pope, as a middle-class American in the market for a new house, recognized this as a potential opportunity to get a Wright-designed home himself. At an architects' conference in 1938, Pope approached Wright after his presentation to inquire about

1725-707: The broadest sense. This new functionalist architecture had the strongest impact in Czechoslovakia , Germany , Poland , the USSR and the Netherlands , and from the 1930s also in Scandinavia and Finland . This principle is a matter of confusion and controversy within the profession, particularly in regard to modern architecture , as it is less self-evident than it first appears. The theoretical articulation of functionalism in buildings can be traced back to

1794-401: The common features are flat roofing, stuccoed walls, architectural glazing and well-lit rooms, an industrial expression and nautical-inspired details, including round windows. The global stock market crisis and economic meltdown in 1929 , instigated the needs to use affordable materials, such as brick and concrete, and to build quickly and efficiently. These needs became another signature of

1863-404: The construction of all public (and most private) edifices. The common structural element of Zlín architecture is a square bay of 20x20 feet (6.15x6.15 m). Although modified by several variations, this high modernist style leads to a high degree of uniformity of all buildings. It highlights the central and unique idea of an industrial garden city at the same time. Architectural and urban functionalism

1932-405: The design of the Pope–Leighey House, as noted by the house's primary carpenter, who remarked upon reviewing Wright's plans that the house was "logical." Wright wanted his designs to be practical, but was uninterested in purely utilitarian buildings whose appearance reflected their purpose and nothing more, as was often the case when following the principles of functionalism. Wright wanted to reimagine

2001-401: The design. Wright also oversaw Pope's extension of the brick patio, admonishing him if he deemed the job too sloppy. Construction began in 1940. Wright chose his apprentice of two years, Gordon Chadwick, as the general contractor who would oversee construction of the home. Howard Rickert from Vienna, Virginia, was the project's primary carpenter. Wright, who liked to be involved at every step of

2070-401: The essential construction of the building". In 1896, Chicago architect Louis Sullivan coined the phrase Form follows function . However, this aphorism does not relate to a contemporary understanding of the term 'function' as utility or the satisfaction of user needs; it was instead based in metaphysics, as the expression of organic essence and could be paraphrased as meaning 'destiny'. In

2139-413: The extremely devastating world war. In this respect, functionalist architecture is often linked with the ideas of socialism and modern humanism . A new slight addition to this new wave of architecture was that not only should buildings and houses be designed around the purpose of functionality, architecture should also be used as a means to physically create a better world and a better life for people in

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2208-463: The form of architecture should follow precedent. Wright's architecture mentor, Louis Sullivan , was famously a proponent of functionalism. Wright altered this principle by positing that form and function are one, thus arguing that both the purpose and the decor of a building should be taken into consideration. Wright's attention to function and form simultaneously meant his designs were rational while remaining artistic and decorative. This can be seen in

2277-432: The future of the nation might be like, and explored how they could set the tone of the coming century through their designs. Usonianism was Wright's contribution to this movement. The Pope–Leighey House is a prime example of Usonianism, and Wright felt that it was some of his best work, even toying with the idea of naming it "Touchstone". The house features many of the key elements of Usonian architecture, including an L shape,

2346-582: The home to the National Trust for Historic Preservation , who granted her the right to remain there for the rest of her life in return. The National Trust for Historic Preservation, with the help of the Secretary of the Interior, began a campaign to save the house from destruction, writing to the governor of Virginia suggesting that the highway might be rerouted. The proposal was denied, and the house

2415-430: The house without air conditioning, which was notably innovative at the time of design. There is supplementary radiant heating from hot water pipes under the concrete floor. Natural heating and cooling dependent on windows and radiant-floor heating is typical of Usonian houses. The brick and wood used throughout the house are not painted but rather treated with clear wax, which accentuates their natural qualities. The floor

2484-498: The iconic Paimio Sanatorium , designed in 1929 and built in 1933. Aalto introduced standardised, precast concrete elements as early as the late 1920s, when he designed residential buildings in Turku. This technique became a cornerstone of later developments in modernist architecture after World War II, especially in the 1950s and 1960s. He also introduced serial produced wooden housing. Interbellum avant-garde Polish architects in

2553-406: The interior was just as important as the construction of the building, and thus furniture and appliances were part of his vision. It was crucial to Wright that the interior and exterior of the house fit his vision exactly. When a magnolia tree that Pope had planted in front of the carport grew taller than the roof, Wright visited to inform him that he must cut down the tree because it interfered with

2622-406: The lawn outside. The landscaping around the house was also a part of the architecture. Wright wanted the house to evoke the sensation of "a happy, cloudless day." The house is in the shape of an L, a technique Wright often used to incorporate an outdoor garden space. At the juncture of the two wings are the entrance, a study, and the kitchen. In one wing, there are two bedrooms and a bathroom, and in

2691-465: The likelihood that Wright would design a house for someone like him. Wright responded that he only built houses for "people who deserved them" like middle-class families, noting that he would never design for those in the real estate business. Encouraged, Pope read Wright's autobiography, which made him so enamored with Wright that he became determined to contact the architect for a commission. Pope wrote to Wright, telling him that "There are certain things

2760-457: The majority of the city of Zlín , developed by the Bata shoe company as a factory town in the 1920s and designed by Le Corbusier 's student František Lydie Gahura . Numerous villas, apartment buildings and interiors, factories, office blocks and department stores can be found in the functionalist style throughout the country, which industrialised rapidly in the early 20th century while embracing

2829-399: The materials: the use of brick and wood made the space feel like "a rustic hide-out in the mountains," according to Pope. In recalling the draft plan for the house, Loren Pope noted that the "walls seemed to be only screens." Stars in the nighttime sky can be viewed from a spot inside the house next to the fireplace. The house's French doors open to unite the living room floor with the patio and

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2898-465: The mid-1930s, functionalism began to be discussed as an aesthetic approach rather than a matter of design integrity (use). The idea of functionalism was conflated with a lack of ornamentation, which is a different matter. It became a pejorative term associated with the baldest and most brutal ways to cover space, like cheap commercial buildings and sheds, then finally used, for example in academic criticism of Buckminster Fuller 's geodesic domes , simply as

2967-540: The middle class, Wright never requested his final payment. Pope and his family moved into the house in 1941. The Popes lived in the house for five years, but after the death of their young son and the birth of two more children, the Popes decided to move. In 1946, they sold the home to Robert and Marjorie Leighey for $ 17,000. The Popes moved to a farm in Loudoun County, planning to commission from Wright another, larger home on that land. However, Pope could not afford

3036-516: The most outstanding work of Polish functionalist architecture is the entire city of Gdynia , modern Polish seaport established 1926. In Russia and the former Soviet Union , functionalism was known as Constructivist architecture , and was the dominant style for major building projects between 1918 and 1932. The 1932 competition for the Palace of the Soviets and the winning entry by Boris Iofan marked

3105-663: The most prolific and notable architects in Finland, working in the funkis style, includes Alvar Aalto and Erik Bryggman who were both engaged from the very start in the 1930s. The Turku region pioneered this new style and the journal Arkkitehti mediated and discussed functionalism in a Finnish context. Many of the first buildings in the funkis style were industrial structures, institutions and offices but spread to other kinds of structures such as residential buildings, individual housing and churches. The functionalist design also spread to interior designs and furniture as exemplified by

3174-440: The need for urban housing and new institutions for the growing welfare states exploded after World War II. Funkis had its heyday in the 1930s and 1940s, but functionalist architecture continued to be built long into the 1960s. These later structures, however, tend to be categorized as modernism in a Nordic context. Vilhelm Lauritzen , Arne Jacobsen and C.F. Møller were among the most active and influential Danish architects of

3243-682: The new functionalist ideas and Arne Jacobsen, Poul Kjærholm , Kaare Klint , and others, extended the new approach to design in general, most notably furniture which evolved to become Danish modern . Some Danish designers and artists who did not work as architects are sometimes also included in the Danish functionalist movement, such as Finn Juhl , Louis Poulsen and Poul Henningsen . In Denmark, bricks were largely preferred over reinforced concrete as construction material, and this included funkis buildings. Apart from institutions and apartment blocks, more than 100,000 single-family funkis houses were built in

3312-469: The now listed Kastrup Airport 1939 terminal by Vilhelm Lauritzen, Aarhus University (by C. F. Møller et al.) and Aarhus City Hall (by Arne Jacobsen et al.), all including furniture and lamps specially designed for these buildings in the functionalist spirit. The largest functionalist complex in the Nordic countries is the 30,000-sq. m. residential compound of Hostrups Have in Copenhagen. Some of

3381-415: The other, there is a space which functions as a living room, a dining area, and a library. The height of the living room space is 11.5 feet (3.5 m). The house is one story, but it has two levels to accommodate the natural slope of the land. The original plans had included a workshop, but it had to be removed when Wright downsized the design for affordability. The roof is held up by three brick pillars. Glass,

3450-441: The process, visited the site of construction several times. Usonian homes did not use stock materials, so every piece of the building had to be constructed on the site, including components like the windows and doors. Once construction was completed, Wright felt that the cost of the house had become too high. Concerned about the Popes' ability to afford the house, and determined to stick to his Usonian principle of accessibility for

3519-471: The relationship of a building to the people inside it. It became important to consider in the design process how architecture would make individuals feel. The house also reflects Wright's commitment to blurring the line between the indoors and outdoors. Wright believed that architecture should be integrated into its environment almost as if it grew naturally from the ground. He drew on inspiration from nature in much of his work, which can be seen in this house in

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3588-489: The residential scale, designers like Christopher Tunnard , James Rose , and Garrett Eckbo advocated a design philosophy based on the creation of spaces for outdoor living and the integration of house and garden. At a larger scale, the German landscape architect and planner Leberecht Migge advocated the use of edible gardens in social housing projects as a way to counteract hunger and increase self-sufficiency of families. At

3657-429: The rise of working-class activism, particularly in big cities which were expanding as a result of commercial trade. Wright believed in this transformative ability of architecture, designing his houses with the intention of nurturing the lives of the middle-class people who inhabited them. This principle is demonstrated at the Pope–Leighey House in the attention Wright paid to every component of the Popes' life there, down to

3726-420: The small house by writing him a famously flattering letter. Pope opened, "There are certain things a man wants during life, and, of life. Material things and things of the spirit. The writer has one fervent wish that includes both. It is for a house created by you." He closed with the plea, "Will you create a house for us? Will you?" The architect's reply was brief: "Dear Loren Pope: Of course I am ready to give you

3795-570: The start of eclectic historicism of Stalinist Architecture and the end of constructivist domination in Soviet Union. Notable representations of functionalist architecture include: The residential area of Södra Ängby in western Stockholm , Sweden , blended a functionalist or international style with garden city ideals. Encompassing more than 500 buildings, it remains the largest coherent functionalistic villa area in Sweden and possibly

3864-425: The typical box shape that house design had come to rely on—he was more interested in deconstructing the space so that it might flow more freely, allowing rooms to merge into one another and experimenting with ceiling heights. He felt a house ought to feel open but still protective of its residents. This philosophy was precipitated by scientific discoveries about the human psyche, which had caused architects to reevaluate

3933-590: The work of the Franco-Swiss architect Le Corbusier and the German architect Mies van der Rohe . Both were functionalists at least to the extent that their buildings were radical simplifications of previous styles. In 1923, Mies van der Rohe was working in Weimar Germany, and had begun his career of producing radically simplified, lovingly detailed structures that achieved Sullivan's goal of inherent architectural beauty. Le Corbusier famously said "a house

4002-489: The world, still well-preserved more than a half-century after its construction 1933–40 and protected as a national cultural heritage . Zlín is a city in the Czech Republic which was in the 1930s completely reconstructed on principles of functionalism. In that time the city was a headquarters of Bata Shoes company and Tomáš Baťa initiated a complex reconstruction of the city which was inspired by functionalism and

4071-508: The years 1918–1939 made a notable impact in the legacy of European modern architecture and functionalism. A lot of Polish architects were fascinated by Le Corbusier like his Polish students and coworkers Jerzy Sołtan , Aleksander Kujawski (both co-authors of Unité d'habitation in Marseille ) and his coworkers Helena Syrkus (Le Corbusier's companion on board of the S.S. Patris, an ocean liner journeying from Marseille to Athens in 1933 during

4140-482: The years 1925–1945. However, the truly dedicated funkis design was often approached with caution. Many residential buildings only included some signature funkis elements such as round windows, corner windows or architectural glazing to signal modernity while not provoking conservative traditionalists too much. This branch of restrained approach to the funkis design created the Danish version of the bungalow building. Fine examples of Danish functionalist architecture are

4209-411: Was able to spend $ 5,000 on the house, which was significantly less than the typical cost of a design by Wright. Borrowing money for the house proved difficult, with one lender warning Pope that the home could be a "white elephant"—in other words, a property which would require a lot of money and attention without providing much profit in return. However, Pope was determined, so he turned to his employer for

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4278-464: Was an American writer and educational consultant , best known for his book, Colleges That Change Lives . He was also the education editor of The New York Times . Born in Minneapolis , Pope grew up in northern Virginia. He was a Democrat, in a family of stalwart Republicans. He was an alumnus of DePauw University . Pope married and divorced Charlotte Swart Pope and Ida Wallace Pope. Pope

4347-492: Was causing the base of the house to crack. In 1995, the house was again relocated to a spot only 30 feet away, at a cost of $ 500,000. The house remains in that spot today, sharing a historical site with Woodlawn Plantation. The National Trust has preserved the house as it was intended to be lived in, complete with original decor and furniture, so visitors to the house today can see Wright's Usonian vision. Loren Pope Loren Brooks Pope (July 13, 1910 – September 23, 2008)

4416-444: Was first published in 1996, with revised editions in 2000 and 2006. A final fourth revision was published in 2012 after Pope's death, updated by Hilary Masell Oswald. A non-profit organization modeled after the book now carries the name. The fourth edition profiles 40 choices for liberal arts colleges that "have one primary mission: educate the undergraduate. Each appeals to a slightly different type of teenager, but they all share

4485-687: Was married 24 years to Viola Barrett Greenland Pope, who lived to the age of 96. In 1965, Pope, founded the College Placement Bureau, one of the first independent college placement counseling services in the United States. His first book, The Right College: How to Get In, Stay In, Get Back In (Macmillan, 1970), was followed by a nationally syndicated article series, "Twenty Myths That Can Jinx Your College Choice," published in The Washington Post Magazine and Reader's Digest . A second book, Looking Beyond

4554-421: Was one of the foremost architects within the American modern architecture movement. Although he was reluctant to ascribe his work to any particular movement, he had considerable influence over the evolution of modernism. Wright had achieved such prominence in the field that architects would gather around during the construction of the house in the hopes of glimpsing (or even taking) some sketches done by Wright. By

4623-509: Was plenty of social unrest in the early 20th century in America. Many architects turned to beautification and rational planning as a means towards progress, based on the idea that visual and structural beauty would contribute to better working and living conditions. Architecture was viewed as a mechanism for promoting progressive beliefs, motivated in part by pushback against corporate growth and landlordism. This development happened in tandem with

4692-646: Was to serve the demands of a modern city. The simplicity of its buildings which also translated into its functional adaptability was to prescribe (and also react to) the needs of everyday life. The urban plan of Zlín was the creation of František Lydie Gahura , a student at Le Corbusier's atelier in Paris. Architectural highlights of the city are e.g. the Villa of Tomáš Baťa, Baťa's Hospital, Tomas Bata Memorial , The Grand Cinema or Baťa's Skyscraper . Khrushchyovka (Russian: хрущёвка , IPA: [xrʊˈɕːɵfkə] )

4761-642: Was ultimately dismantled, moved, and reconstructed on another piece of property owned by the National Trust for Historic Preservation: Woodlawn Plantation , a 2,000 acre property in Alexandria, Virginia which was once part of George Washington's estate. The house opened to the public as the Pope–Leighey House in 1965. Marjorie Leighey continued to reside in the home from 1969 until her death in 1983. The house's initial location at Woodlawn Plantation turned out to be on top of unstable marine clay , which

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