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44-479: The Palace Tomb was built toward the end of the first century CE. This date is derived from the tomb's architectural style and its relationship to other nearby tombs, specifically due to the “marked deterioration” of its decorative classical elements. The facade of the Palace Tomb has three stories, the highest of which is notable because it reaches beyond the face of the cliff and is built, rather than carved, in

88-420: A toponym as though it was the name of a person. As with other culturo-linguistic groups, other types of surnames were often used as well, including trade-names such as MacGhobhainn , Mac a'Ghobhainn or Mac Gabhainn ( son of the smith ), and physical characteristics such as hair colour. In anglicizing Gaelic names, the prefixes Mac , Nic , and Ó were frequently removed (the name Ó Fathaigh , by example,

132-529: A base, surmounted by a pediment and surrounded by columns. In ancient Roman architecture the aedicula has this representative function in the society. They are installed in public buildings like the triumphal arch , city gate , and thermae . The Library of Celsus in Ephesus ( c.  2 AD) is a good example. From the 4th century Christianization of the Roman Empire onwards such shrines, or

176-776: A dot above the letter, but with the introduction of printing with movable type the h was substituted) after a consonant (silencing it, or changing its sound), and for the last vowel to be slender (i or e) if male, the anglicized form of a Gaelic name could look quite different. By example, MacPhearais ( Mac+Pearas = son of Pierce ) has been anglicized as Corish , and MacAonghais has been anglicized as MacAngus , MacInnis , MacInnes , Innis , Innes , and Guinness . As with Gaelic and Germanic surnames, Welsh surnames and Cornish surnames had originally been mostly patronymic , though others contained toponymic elements, or were derived from trades, or personal characteristics. Surnames which remained fixed across generations, passed down along

220-613: A fluidity in how families chose to spell their names. Legal problems caused by spelling variations in Surnames were addressed by the Land Purchases Act. This Act established the principle of idem sonans, that is if differently spelled names "sounded the same," a claim of an unbroken line of ownership could be acknowledged. Since preserving the name's sound was legally important, common forms of Surname changes involved spelling adaptations that helped English readers replicate

264-457: A forebear, however. Some signified an ancestral people or homeland, such as MacDhubhghaill (son of a dark-haired foreigner; referring to one type of Scandinavian), MacFhionnghaill (son of a fair-haired foreigner; also referring to a Scandinavian people), MacLachlainn or MacLachlainneach (son of a Scandinavian). Others indicated the town or village of a family's origin, sometimes disguised as an ancestor's name as in Ó Creachmhaoil , which prefixes

308-409: A little building that sets it apart from the wall against which it is placed. A tabernacle frame on a wall serves similar hieratic functions as a free-standing, three-dimensional architectural baldaquin or a ciborium over an altar . In Late Gothic settings, altarpieces and devotional images were customarily crowned with gables and canopies supported by clustered-column piers, echoing in small

352-529: A part of funeral architecture. Presently the most famous aediculae is situated inside the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in city of Jerusalem . Contemporary American architect Charles Moore (1925–1993) used the concept of aediculae in his work to create spaces within spaces and to evoke the spiritual significance of the home. Anglicisation of names The anglicisation of personal names

396-471: A personal name now usually depends on the preferences of the bearer. Name changes are less common today for Europeans emigrating to the United States than they are for people originating in, or descending from those who emigrated from, East Asian countries. Requests that the bearer anglicize their personal name against their wishes are viewed as a form of racism or xenophobia. French immigrants to

440-660: Is a small shrine , and in classical architecture refers to a niche covered by a pediment or entablature supported by a pair of columns and typically framing a statue , the early Christian ones sometimes contained funeral urns. Aediculae are also represented in art as a form of ornamentation. The word aedicula is the diminutive of the Latin aedes , a temple building or dwelling place. The Latin word has been anglicised as " aedicule " and as " edicule ". Describing post-antique architecture, especially Renaissance architecture , aedicular forms may be described using

484-564: Is the change of non-English-language personal names to spellings nearer English sounds, or substitution of equivalent or similar English personal names in the place of non-English personal names. A small number of figures, mainly very well-known classical and religious writers, appear under English names—or more typically under Latin names, in English texts. This practice became prevalent as early as in English-language translations of

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528-757: The Cold War . German Americans are the largest ethnic group in the USA numbering at almost 50 million or roughly 1/6th of US population. Immigration from Germany can be traced back to 1608 (Jamestown, VA), but migration was highest between the mid 19th century and early 20th century. From 1876 to 1923, Germany was the largest source of US Immigrants. From 1923 to 1970, it was the 2nd largest source of US Immigrants after Italy. A formal immigration process channeling immigrants through Ellis Island only began in 1892. Immigrants arriving prior to this, did not receive official immigration papers documenting their names. This created

572-709: The New Testament , where translators typically renamed figures such as Yeshu and Simon bar-Jonah as Jesus and Peter , and treated most of the other figures in the New Testament similarly. In contrast, translations of the Old Testament traditionally use the original names, more or less faithfully transliterated from the original Hebrew. Transatlantic explorers such as Zuan Chabotto and Cristoforo Colombo became popularly known as John Cabot and Christopher Columbus; English-speakers anglicized and Latinized

616-569: The 1740s, by such designers as William Kent . Aediculae feature prominently in the arrangement of the Saint Peter's tomb with statues by Bernini ; a small aedicula directly underneath it, dated ca. 160 AD, was discovered in 1940. Similar small shrines, called naiskoi , are found in Greek religion , but their use was strictly religious. Aediculae exist today in Roman cemeteries as

660-514: The 1940s, automobile registration documents, along with widespread implementation of social security, played an important role in stabilizing American surnames by legally documenting most of the US population's names. Italian surnames were often anglicized in the United States: for example, the i-ending of a number of Italian names becomes y , e , or ie . When Dutch immigrants arrived in

704-461: The DOA to purchase scaffolding and carry out urgent consolidation works. As a result, the DOA was able to build a 50 metre high scaffolding to reach the upper storey. The cause of collapse of the masonry was found to be a break in the water channel which collected the rainwater from behind the monument to a large reservoir in a corner of the roof terrace. Some repairs were carried out to the stonework, under

748-475: The Dark Ages. Originally, most Gaelic surnames were composed of the given name of a child's father, preceded by Mac ( son ) or Nic (or Ní , both being variants of nighean , meaning daughter ) depending on the gender . These surnames would not be passed down another generation, and a woman would keep her birth surname after marriage . The same was originally true of Germanic surnames which followed

792-464: The German composer Johann Christian Bach , the "London Bach", who was known as "John Bach" after emigrating to England. During the time in which there were large influxes of immigrants from Europe to the United States and United Kingdom during the 19th and 20th centuries, the given names and surnames of many immigrants were changed. This became known colloquially as the " Ellis Island Special ", after

836-620: The U.S. immigrant processing center on Ellis Island ; contrary to popular myth, no names were ever legally changed at Ellis Island, and immigrants almost always changed them at their own discretion. Traditionally common Christian given names could be substituted: such as James for the etymologically connected Jacques. Alternatively phonetical similarities, such as Joe for Giò (Giovanni or Giorgio); or abbreviation, Harry for Harilaos, or Ricky for Enrique (Henry), as common in Spanish, instead of for (Ricardo) Richard as in English. The anglicisation of

880-428: The US, some German Americans chose to blur their connections with their ancestral homeland, by translating part or whole of their surnames into English. Once again, translations that limited change in sound were preferred over those that sounded different. Relative to the sustained German mass immigration during the 19th and early 20th century, this practice of surname translation was unusual and not very widespread. In

924-464: The United States (both those of Huguenot and French-Canadian background) often accommodated those unfamiliar with French pronunciations and spellings by altering their surnames (or encounter having them altered) in either of two ways: spellings were changed to fit the traditional pronunciation (Pariseau became Parizo, Boucher became Bushey, Mailloux became Mayhew, Cartier became Carter, Carpentier became Carpenter), or pronunciations were changed to fit

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968-532: The United States, often their names got changed. This was either done on purpose, to make the name easier to write and remember, or by accident because the clerk didn't know how to spell the name and wrote it down phonetically. Coastal Salish people were often given "Boston names" by early European settlers. These English names often had similar sounds to original Lushootseed names. When Lushootseed names were integrated into English, they were often recorded and pronounced very differently. An example of this

1012-634: The architecture of Gothic churches. Painted aediculae frame figures from sacred history in initial letters of illuminated manuscripts . Classicizing architectonic structure and décor all'antica , in the "ancient [Roman] mode", became a fashionable way to frame a painted or bas-relief portrait, or protect an expensive and precious mirror during the High Renaissance ; Italian precedents were imitated in France, then in Spain, England and Germany during

1056-466: The case of the last two, they are lenited when the intended connotation is "son/daughter of" rather than a surname. By example, if stating that James (Scott) is the son of Calum (Stuart) in Gaelic, it would be phrased Seumas mac Chaluim , as distinct from Seumas MacCaluim for a James with the surname MacCaluim ) with the addition of an h after it (originally, this had been indicated in handscript by

1100-409: The direction of Mr. Abed Majid Mujelli of the DOA, as well as clearing of some of the accumulated earth from the cistern on its roof terrace. No crane was available to lift the building materials to the inaccessible roof of the monuments, only pulleys being available, and the parapet was only partly consolidated. Aedicula In ancient Roman religion , an aedicula ( pl. : aediculae )

1144-400: The end, so that the such as 'ap Hywell' became Powell , and 'ap Siôn' to Jones or Upjohn . The first generation to adopt this Agmicisation hereafter handed it down unchanged to children. Many Cornish ( Kernewek ) names have been anglicised in similar ways. Anglicisation of non-English-language names was common for immigrants, or even visitors, to English-speaking countries. An example is

1188-455: The framework enclosing them, are often called by the Biblical term tabernacle , which becomes extended to any elaborated framework for a niche, window or picture. In Gothic architecture , too, an aedicula or tabernacle is a structural framing device that gives importance to its contents, whether an inscribed plaque, a cult object , a bust or the like, by assuming the tectonic vocabulary of

1232-418: The highest story than in the lower two, which appear to be the least elaborate. The Palace Tomb is generally considered to be one of the finest of the rock-carved monuments of Petra, although the upper part of the façade is partly built of masonry. Its façade, crossed by several natural joints, shows many of the typical forms of weathering seen at Petra. The erosion done by rainwater run-off is most severe where

1276-468: The later 16th century. Aedicular door surrounds that are architecturally treated, with pilasters or columns flanking the doorway and an entablature even with a pediment over it came into use with the 16th century. In the neo-Palladian revival in Britain, architectonic aedicular or tabernacle frames, carved and gilded, are favourite schemes for English Palladian mirror frames of the late 1720s through

1320-582: The male line of descent (provided parents were married) were adopted under the dictate of the English Government from the sixteenth century . As in the Gaelic-speaking areas, many Welsh ( Cymric ) patronyms were anglicised by omitting the prefix indicating son of and either exchanging the father's Welsh forename for its English equivalent, or re-spelling it according to English spelling rules, and, either way, most commonly adding -s to

1364-658: The name of the Polish astronomer Mikołaj Kopernik to (Nicholas) Copernicus, and the English-speaking world typically knows the French-born theologian Jean Calvin as John Calvin. Such anglicisations became less usual after the sixteenth century. Most Gaelic language surnames of Ireland, Scotland, and the Isle of Man have been anglicized at some time. The Gaels were among the first Europeans to adopt surnames during

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1408-460: The original German pronunciation. The First and Second World Wars created pockets of xenophobia against German Americans. During the same period, The Anti-Saloon league , successfully lobbied the Government to enact prohibition, using racist "us vs them" propaganda against German Americans, who owned a large percentage of American breweries. During the window of anti-German hostilities in

1452-467: The outer are semi-circular. These aediculae lead into four burial rooms, some of which have graves carved into the walls. Additionally, several of these rooms have niches carved around them, in line with the natural patterns of the rock. Flanking the aedicula are single columns, double-engaged or decorated only with two vertical lines. Two smaller, similarly decorated columns are carved to either side of each doorway, and two yet smaller columns are themselves

1496-651: The pattern [father's given name]+son/daughter (this is still the case in Iceland , as exemplified by the singer Björk Guðmundsdóttir and former Prime Minister Sigmundur Davíð Gunnlaugsson ). When referring to siblings collectively (or to members of a family or clan that share a "Mac-" surname), the prefix for son or daughter was pluralised. By example, MacAoidh (son of Hugh ) becomes MicAoidh ( sons of Hugh ) and Clann MhicAoidh ( literally children/descendants of Hugh ). The Jacksons in English (with Jack being derived from John) would in Gaelic be rendered a' MhicSheain (

1540-548: The protective cornices and gutters have been breached by the action of water infiltrating into the joints. In the winter of 1988, block failure and major cracking occurred in the Palace Tomb and several blocks of stone fell down from its masonry superstructure. In answer to an appeal by the Jordanian Audiorities, UNESCO provided financial assistance from the World Heritage Fund in order to enable

1584-505: The sides of each entrance. Each gate has a small ramp to the interior, which could facilitate movement between the inner space and more publicly visible outer area. The second story has eighteen engaged columns whose capitals are unevenly spaced across its façade. These columns lack the simple decoration of those on the first story, but are otherwise almost identical. Between the eight inner-most second-story columns, rectangular niches have been carved at irregular intervals. These columns end at

1628-480: The smith ) were anglicized as McGowan , Gowan , McGavin , and Gavin . In surnames which had been prefixed Mac (which includes most Manx surnames), the final hard c sound remained when the Mac was removed. As Gaelic spelling rules required the first letter of a name preceded by Mac or Nic to be lenited (providing it was a consonant other than l, n, or r, which are not generally lenited in Gaelic, or c or g; although in

1672-406: The sons of John ). Over the centuries, under the influence of post- Medieval English practice , this type of surname has become static over generations, handed down the male lineage to all successive generations so that it no longer indicates the given name of a holder's father any more than the suffix -son on a Germanic language surname does today. Among English-speaking peoples of Gaelic heritage,

1716-1265: The spelling (Benoît, pronounced French pronunciation: [bənwa] , became Benway, or Bennett / b ɛ n ˈ ɔɪ t / ). Some Greek names are anglicized using the etymologically related name: Agni: Agnes; Alexandros/Alexis: Alexander/Alex; Alexandra: Alexandra/Alex; Andreas: Andrew; Christophoros: Christopher; Evgenios/Evgenis: Eugene/Gene; Eleni: Helen; Georgios/Yorgos: George; Ioannis/Yannis: John; Irini: Irene; Katharini: Catherine/Kate; Markos: Mark; Michail/Michalis: Michael; Nikolaos: Nicholas; Pavlos: Paul; Petros: Peter; Stephanos: Stephen; Theodoros: Theodore/Ted; and so on. Besides simple abbreviation or anglicisation of spelling, there are some conventional English versions of or nicknames for Greek names which were formerly widely used and are still encountered: Hundreds of Spiritual Christian Doukhobors who migrated from Russia to Canada from 1899 to 1930, changed their surnames. Genealogist Jonathan Kalmakoff posted comprehensive lists for Many descendants of Spiritual Christians from Russia in California, whose parents immigrated to Los Angeles (1904–1912), hid their family surnames due to real and perceived ethnic discrimination during

1760-450: The third story's cleanly carved base. Much of the third story is not preserved, as it extends beyond the existing rock face and had to be constructed  from ashlar blocks to complete the uneven shape of the facade. As a result, most of the upper-left corner of the facade is no longer extant, and the stone-block support system is visible behind the carved rock to even the casual observer. From what remains, there were likely more columns on

1804-486: The top left corner. This construction is significant as the Palace Tomb is one of the only monuments in Petra which mixes the carved and built structure. The first story has four aediculae , or small shrines surmounted by columns, which act as entryways into the tomb. The middle two of these thresholds are almost twice as wide as the outer two. A further distinction is that the middle entrances have triangular pediments, while

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1848-423: The use of Nic as a prefix for daughters has been replaced by Mac , regardless of sex (as per Geraldine McGowan , Alyth McCormack , and Sarah McLachlan ). Wives also began to take on the surnames of their husbands. Another common pattern of surname was similar to that preceded by Mac/Nic, but instead was preceded by Ó or Ui, signifying a grandchild or descendant. Not all Gaelic surnames signified relationship to

1892-526: The word tabernacle , as in tabernacle window . Many aediculae were household shrines ( lararia ) that held small altars or statues of the Lares and Di Penates . The Lares were Roman deities protecting the house and the family household gods. The Penates were originally patron gods (really genii ) of the storeroom, later becoming household gods guarding the entire house. Other aediculae were small shrines within larger temples , usually set on

1936-434: Was sometimes anglicized as Fahey or Fay , identically to the given name; Ó Leannáin and Ó Lionáin have both been anglicized as Lennon ; Ó Ceallaigh and Ó Cadhla have been anglicized as Kelly ). Where they were retained, Mac was often rendered Mc , M', or Mag- (the last is seen in renderings such as Maguire for Mac Uidhir ) and Ó/Ui became O' . MacGhobhainn , Mac a'Ghobhainn and Mac Gabhainn ( son of

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