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48-427: The outside of the structure is an example of Italian medieval architecture with Gothic influences. The lower story is stone while the upper crenellated stories are made of brick. At a time when brick as a finished face was rare, Siena preferred it to stone because it was cheaper; this allowed architects to use more expensive detailing elsewhere. The facade of the palace is curved slightly inwards (concave) to reflect

96-575: A new dimension a few years later when a previously unknown fresco was discovered on the western wall of the Sala del Mappamondo. It is probably one of the castle frescoes that disappeared behind plaster circa 1345 when the Mappamondo was installed in the hall. It is partly overlapped by the Guidoriccio , has a similar theme (two persons and a castle) and is of high quality. Some point to Duccio as

144-412: A recognizable view of Siena and its countryside. In the allegorical representation of Good Government, the prosperous townspeople are trading and dancing in the streets. Beyond the city walls is a lush countryside in which crops are harvested. In the allegory of Bad Government , crime is rampant and diseased citizens roam a crumbling city; the countryside suffers from drought. Many of the frescoes in

192-625: A throne; the Judge reflects the tradition in the Christian Last Judgment to have God or Christ judging the saved on the left and the damned on the right. While classified as medieval or proto (pre)-renaissance art, these paintings show a transition from earlier religious art. Flanking the Allegory are two other paintings on perpendicular walls: Effects of Good Government and Effects of Bad Government . Both these frescoes depict

240-458: A work by Martini. However, this matter is still unresolved. In the middle of the fresco Guidoriccio da Fogliano , a condottiero ( mercenary officer) and commander of the Sienese troops, is depicted on horseback. He is shown in profile with a Field Marshal ’s baton in his hand. On the left Montemassi can be seen surrounded by ramparts. To the right of the central figure of Guidoriccio there

288-546: Is a fresco on the western wall of the Sala del Mappamondo in the Palazzo Pubblico in Siena . It shows Guidoriccio da Fogliano , the commander of the Sienese troops, on horseback against the background of a landscape in which the siege of Montemassi takes place.. For a long time it was assumed that the work was painted in 1330 by Simone Martini . This dating made it one of the first secular portraits and one of

336-707: Is a siege engine with the flag of the Sienese Republic in top. Further to the right there is a group of tents at the foot of a hill, with white and black flags and pennants flying. At the bottom of the fresco the year of the conquest of Montemassi by Sienese troops (1328) is given in Roman numerals : MCCC.XX.VIII. The murals in the Palazzo Pubblico were commissioned by the Council of Nine, Siena's ruling body. The murals capture important triumphs in

384-481: Is characterized by a use of round or slightly pointed arches, barrel vaults, and cruciform piers supporting vaults. Romanesque buildings are widely known throughout Europe. The Romanesque style is sometimes called Anglo-Norman, though it continues under the Angevin and Plantagenet rulers. Motifs of Roman origin were common to Norman and Anglo-Saxon architectural styles. Though usually classed broadly as "Romanesque",

432-671: Is common to see in many floor plans of medieval religious structures a nave -the central part of the church building, transepts -isle crossing the nave, and an altar located on the east side forming the shape of the Latin cross . The buildings with this floor plan are considered cruciform churches, which is seen in a large amount of cathedrals and churches in the Romanesque and Gothic styles across Europe. Many religious buildings also had sacred elements such as relics and reliquaries for there patrons and far-off travelers to see that tells

480-534: Is damaged by Lorenzetti's circular map of the world. Siena was decimated by the Black Death in 1348; approximately half of its population died in the plague. The republic's economy was destroyed and the state quickly declined from its position of prominence in Italy. The Franciscan religious order rose to power in the city. The stagnation over the following centuries meant that while Siena did not develop during

528-424: Is titled in its place, so there is no doubt about what each figure represents. The meaning of this fresco is clear: good government will make the people prosper. The allegory carries a strong social message of the value of the stable republican government of Siena. It combines elements of secular life with references to the importance of religion: Justice resembles Mary, Queen of Heaven, the patron saint of Siena, on

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576-529: Is traditionally attributed to Simone Martini , although there is debate on the subject. The wall has circular markings left by the circular wall-mounted (now lost) map of the world by Ambrogio Lorenzetti . Hidden underneath this fresco is the New Fresco, plastered over and partly painted over. This fresco depicts two men standing alongside a town on a hill. The fresco is in poor condition from being painted over and its origin and intent remain unknown. It, also,

624-454: Is very unique due to these details. The cathedrals are also identifiable due to their height, stone structure, and wooden roofs. Some examples of these religious structures are St. Peter's Basilica , and Cologne Cathedral . Religious structures during the medieval period had a large amount of meaning behind the elements they contained. Many columns or portals for religious buildings tell a story or have some kind of religious symbolism. Some of

672-677: The Joseph Chamberlain Memorial Clock Tower in the Edgbaston campus of the University of Birmingham , which was completed in 1908. The upper-story windows of the Palazzo are heavily ornamented trefoil arches, typical of Sienese architecture. The pointed arches of all of the windows are a clear example of Gothic influence. Nearly every major room in the palace contains frescoes. These were unusual for

720-522: The Renaissance as did other Italian cities, it was also preserved both from bombardment during World War II and from modern development. 43°19′06″N 11°19′53″E  /  43.31833°N 11.33139°E  / 43.31833; 11.33139 Medieval architecture Medieval architecture was the art of designing and constructing buildings in the Middle Ages . Major styles of

768-404: The archers or missile throwers, allowing them to see their targets better. Windows gained a cross-shape for more than decorative purposes, they provided a perfect fit for a crossbowman to shoot invaders from inside safely. Moats were used as a defensive mechanism for keeping attackers further away from the fort, while most were kept dry, moats were much more effective when wet. While much of

816-461: The ogive shape, ribbed stone vaults, clustered columns, pinnacles and sharply pointed spires. Windows contain stained glass , showing stories from the Bible and from lives of saints . Such advances in design allowed cathedrals to rise taller than ever. The architecture of religious buildings depended on the religion it served, the region it was located in, and the style during the time. Although it

864-531: The Île de France area, but were first combined to form what we would now recognise as a distinctively Gothic style at the 12th century abbey church of Saint-Denis in Saint-Denis , near Paris . Verticality is emphasized in Gothic architecture, which features almost skeletal stone structures with great expanses of glass, pared-down wall surfaces supported by external flying buttresses , pointed arches using

912-510: The Middle Ages to display the power of the lords of the land and reassure common folk in their protection of property and livelihood. In the early Middle Ages, fortifications were made from wood and earth, these were called Motte and bailey castles . These consist of a stockade or palisade surrounding an enclosed courtyard and man-made mound. This fortification acted as a passive obstacle that potential enemies would have to face to attack

960-546: The Palace, including these, are badly damaged potentially due to salt once stored in the basement of the building. It is theoretically possible that the salts wicked moisture down from the walls, causing the plaster to dry excessively and the frescoes to flake off. Other frescoes include that of Guidoriccio da Fogliano at the siege of Montemassi , located in the Great Council Hall ( Sala del Mappamondo ). The fresco

1008-661: The beginning of the Middle Ages (around 500AD) to the emergence of the Romanesque style in the 10th century. Much of the notable architecture from the period comes from France and Germany, under the Merovingians and the Carolingians and the Ottonians . Nonetheless, other regions have strong architectural heritage from this period, including Iberia (especially in Asturias ), Croatia , and Great Britain . In Lombardy,

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1056-438: The central image of the horseman had not. They came to this conclusion because in their view horse and rider are not really part of the wider scene. They also pointed out that commander Guidoriccio da Fogliano changed his allegiance to on an enemy of Siena in 1333. It seemed unlikely that the Council of Nine would have tolerated the portrait of "a turncoat" in such a prominent place in the town hall. Moran and Mallory suggested that

1104-415: The civilization. However, this method of fortification had its downside including being vulnerable to fires so more methods of fortification were created. Military architecture began to start being created with stone in the 11th century , it was also used to indicate wealth and power of the are protected with it. Stone was much more durable and provided better defense for the people. They also began to adopt

1152-455: The commonly displayed biblical narratives are the creation story of Adam and Eve, and judgement day invoking visuals of sin and fear for the viewer. A few examples of these elements are west tympanum of Saint-Lazare , and Lorenzo Ghiberti’s Gates of Paradise . Surviving examples of medieval secular architecture mainly served for defense, these include forts , castles , tower houses , and fortified walls . Fortifications were built during

1200-548: The creator, others argue that this underlying fresco is definitely by Simone Martini. According to Moran and Mallory, this is Martini's fresco of the castle in Arcidosso. This would mean that the Guidoriccio cannot be the Montemassi fresco painted by Simone Martini in 1330 because it partly overlaps the image of Arcidosso, which was painted a year later in 1331. The main issue in the Guidoriccio debate therefore no longer

1248-458: The first secular , i.e. strictly non-religious, portraits , and one of the first monumental landscape paintings in Western art. An icon of 14th-century art, it was considered to be one of the best works by Simone Martini. Over the centuries, the horseman has become an emblem of Siena which is still frequently found on souvenirs and local products. Many tourists came, and come, to Siena to see

1296-403: The first monumental landscape paintings . It is widely considered a masterpiece of European painting. In 1977, a frequently acrimonious debate started among art historians about the question whether Martini was indeed the artist. On the same wall in the Sala del Mappamondo another fresco has been discovered that could support the theory that the fresco is not as old as originally thought, and not

1344-417: The fresco and possible anachronisms in the imagery that would make it unlikely that it was painted around 1330. They refer to the architecture of the castles, heraldic elements and the siege engines depicted. They usually conclude that the Guidoriccio could not have been painted before the fifteenth century. The fact that Vasari in his famous painters' biography Le Vite from 1550 makes no mention of

1392-481: The fresco. The Castle of Montemassi is clearly recognizable in the Guidoriccio . Therefore, it was long believed that this must be the fresco that Simone Martine was commissioned to paint by the Sienese city government in 1330. This assumption was challenged in 1977 by the American art historians Gordon Moran and Michael Mallory. At first, they claimed that while most of the fresco had indeed been painted by Martini,

1440-505: The frescoes. The most famous of the secular frescoes are three panels in the series on government in the Hall of the Nine (also known as Sala della Pace) by Ambrogio Lorenzetti . These frescoes are collectively known as The Allegory of Good and Bad Government . The Allegory of Good Government depicts the personification of Justice as a woman. She gestures to the scales of balance, held by

1488-448: The history of Siena. From the beginning of the 14th century the city council commissioned murals of castles and cities that were conquered by Siena. By decorating the meeting room of the Council of Nine with these images, it was made clear that these cities and castles were now the inalienable property of Siena. In this sense, the frescoes can be seen as an artistic form of political propaganda. These frescoes eventually filled two walls of

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1536-441: The largest figure in the image, a judge located in the center right. The judge is surrounded by additional personifications including Peace, who is represented as a fashionable, white-clad contemporary female figure with elaborate blonde hair . Concordia joins the cords of peace and welfare that she receives from Justice and gives it to the citizens, who pull this rope together to bind the wrist of Sovereignty. Each personified virtue

1584-452: The meeting room in the Palazzo Pubblico. Between 1314 and 1331 at least seven castles were painted. Documents show that Simone Martini painted at least four of them: Montemassi and Sasso Forte in 1330, and Arcidosso and Castel Del Piano in 1331. Around 1345, many of these frescoes had to make way for the Mappamondo , the world map by Ambrogio Lorenzetti which is now lost. In the seventeenth or eighteenth century, major restoration work

1632-515: The outwards curve (convex) of the Piazza del Campo , Siena's central square , of which the Palace is the focal point. At the top of this facade is a huge round flat bronze plate [Christogram], the symbol used by Saint Bernardino. It was placed there by the government in 1425 in gratitude to the great preacher, a native Sienese, for his sermons aimed at quelling social and political factionalism and unrest. The campanile or bell tower, Torre del Mangia ,

1680-493: The period include pre-Romanesque , Romanesque , and Gothic . The Renaissance marked the end of the medieval period, when architects began to favour classical forms. While most surviving medieval constructions are churches and military fortifications, examples of civic and domestic architecture can be found throughout Europe, including in manor houses , town halls , almshouses , bridges , and residential houses. The pre-Romanesque period of medieval architecture lasted from

1728-571: The period of architecture can now be divided into two stages. The first stage from 1070 A.D. to 1100 A.D. saw the style emerge during the rebuilding of many great churches, Full boxes, and monasteries (surviving examples include the Durham Cathedral , Norwich Cathedral and the Peterborough Cathedral ). The second stage lasted from 1100 A.D. to 1170 A.D. when many smaller churches were built and renovated. During this time,

1776-402: The personification of Wisdom floating over her throne. On the viewer's left, a convicted criminal is beheaded; on the right, figures receive the rewards of justice. At Justice's feet, the personification of Virtue, also, unusually for the time, portrayed as a female figure, passes virtue among 24 faithfully rendered and recognizable images of prominent male citizens of Siena. The men face towards

1824-566: The pre-Romanesque style included many Romanesque features and is therefore known as the First Romanesque . Romanesque, prevalent in medieval Europe during the 11th and 12th centuries, was the first pan-European style since Roman Imperial architecture and examples are found in every part of the continent. The term was not contemporary with the art it describes, but rather, is an invention of modern scholarship based on its similarity to Roman Architecture in forms and materials. Romanesque

1872-727: The rider image was added to the fresco in 1351, after the death of Guidoriccio da Fogliano who had by then been reinstated as commander of the Sienese troops. Simone Martini died in 1344. This theory was at first not taken seriously at all, and later fiercely contested. Moran and Mallory have stated that they were systematically thwarted by prominent Italian art historians and by the Sienese authorities. Their publications were rejected by journals and not included in scholarly bibliographies and catalogs . They say that they were prevented from presenting their theory at conferences, and were not allowed to do further research in Siena. The debate took on

1920-488: The story of saints and other biblical narratives. The different styles during the middle ages caused churches to have different design elements throughout the time period. In the Romanesque period a common religious building was the basilica . This structures were tall with a rather simple design of a nave, an alter, transepts, and clerestory windows. Gothic cathedrals had features such as stain glass, ribbed vaults, tall piers, buttresses , and pinnacles their structure

1968-527: The style became more detailed and ornamental. Identifying these latter churches is made difficult due to something called the Saxo-Norman overlap, where many Anglo-Saxon aspects are present in the masonry . The Church at Kilpeck is identified as 12th century based on its shallow and flat buttresses , emphatic corbel table and apse. The various elements of Gothic architecture emerged in a number of 11th and 12th century building projects, particularly in

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2016-484: The surviving medieval architecture is either religious or military, examples of civic and even domestic architecture can be found throughout Europe. Examples include manor houses , town halls , almshouses and bridges, but also residential houses. Guidoriccio da Fogliano at the siege of Montemassi Guidoriccio da Fogliano at the Siege of Montemassi (Italian: Guidoriccio da Fogliano all'assedio di Monte Massi )

2064-497: The time in that they were commissioned by the governing body of the city, rather than by the Church or by a religious fraternity. They are also unusual in that many of them depict secular subjects instead of the religious subjects which are overwhelmingly typical of Italian art of this era. Although these frescoes are secular in origin and overall theme, the ideas are expressed within a religious framework: scriptural verses are quoted on

2112-515: The use of cylindrical ground plans. There were many benefits to a cylindrical shape, it reduced blindspots, they were more resistant, and was especially fireproof. Some examples of cylindrical fortifications are the gate towers at Harlech Castle and the Tour des Pénitents. Medieval Fortifications also displayed many different defensive elements including, hoardings , loopholes or crosslets, and moats . Hoarding and loopholes were both beneficial for

2160-415: The wider media; still no final conclusion has been reached. It is unusual for a debate among art historians about the dating and attribution of a 14th-century work of art to take this long and get so much public attention. Those who think that it is a work by Simone Martini base their opinion on stylistic similarities with his other work. Their opponents point out facts concerning the technical preparation of

2208-541: Was built between 1325 and 1344; its crown was designed by the painter Lippo Memmi . The tower was designed to be taller than the tower in neighboring rival Florence ; at the time it was the tallest structure in Italy. It was fitted with a mechanical clock during the mid-14th century. Its design has been used as the basis for several other campaniles, including the Dock Tower in Grimsby , England, constructed in 1852 and

2256-464: Was carried out to restore images that had been lost during the construction of the Mappamondo . The fresco with the equestrian image has always captured the imagination of art historians and the general public. It is seen as a unique mix of realism and artistic imagination. For many it is not just a portrait of one particular warlord during a specific campaign, but a reflection on war and knighthood in general. The Guidoriccio has been considered one of

2304-437: Was whether perhaps the equestrian image had not been painted by Simone Martini, but whether the entire fresco could be attributed to him. It has been suggested that the Guidoriccio was painted by Lippo Memmi , a brother-in-law of Simone Martini who had a similar style. However, this theory is not widely supported. The debate on the correct attribution of the Guidoriccio raged for decades in scientific journals as well as in

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