107-689: Origin Language(s) Slavic, Anglicized Meaning Anglicized from Paltrowicz, Paltrowitch; derived from Palter , Yiddish given name from Paltiel Region of origin Poland Other names Variant form(s) Paltiel ( Hebrew : פלטיאל ), Palter, Pelter; Paltrowicz, Paltrowitch, Paltrowitz (e.g. Darren Paltrowitz ), Palterovich, Polterowicz; Peltowicz, Peltynowicz, etc. See also Peter Taylor, Baron Taylor of Gosforth (about rabbinical Palterovich family), [1] Paltrow
214-572: A concordat between the Zurich and Geneva churches. He reached out to England when Archbishop of Canterbury Thomas Cranmer called for an ecumenical synod of all the evangelical churches. Calvin praised the idea, but ultimately Cranmer was unable to bring it to fruition. Calvin sheltered Marian exiles (those who fled the reign of Catholic Mary Tudor in England) in Geneva starting in 1555. Under
321-533: A heretical view of the Trinity , arrived in Geneva. He was denounced by Calvin and burned at the stake for heresy by the city council. Following an influx of supportive refugees and new elections to the city council, Calvin's opponents were forced out. Calvin spent his final years promoting the Reformation both in Geneva and throughout Europe. John Calvin was born as Jehan Cauvin on 10 July 1509, at Noyon ,
428-420: A toponym as though it was the name of a person. As with other culturo-linguistic groups, other types of surnames were often used as well, including trade-names such as MacGhobhainn , Mac a'Ghobhainn or Mac Gabhainn ( son of the smith ), and physical characteristics such as hair colour. In anglicizing Gaelic names, the prefixes Mac , Nic , and Ó were frequently removed (the name Ó Fathaigh , by example,
535-454: A burden and late in 1542 the council allowed him to preach only once on Sunday. In October 1549, he was again required to preach twice on Sundays and, in addition, every weekday of alternate weeks. His sermons lasted more than an hour and he did not use notes. An occasional secretary tried to record his sermons, but very little of his preaching was preserved before 1549. In that year, professional scribe Denis Raguenier, who had learned or developed
642-492: A city under the enduring influence of the late reformer Johannes Oecolampadius . In March 1536, Calvin published the first edition of his Institutio Christianae Religionis or Institutes of the Christian Religion . The work was an apologia or defense of his faith and a statement of the doctrinal position of the reformers. He also intended it to serve as an elementary instruction book for anyone interested in
749-547: A desire to make progress therein, that although I did not altogether leave off other studies, yet I pursued them with less ardor. In the second account, Calvin wrote of a long process of inner turmoil, followed by spiritual and psychological anguish: Being exceedingly alarmed at the misery into which I had fallen, and much more at that which threatened me in view of eternal death, I, duty bound, made it my first business to betake myself to your way, condemning my past life, not without groans and tears. And now, O Lord, what remains to
856-776: A dot above the letter, but with the introduction of printing with movable type the h was substituted) after a consonant (silencing it, or changing its sound), and for the last vowel to be slender (i or e) if male, the anglicized form of a Gaelic name could look quite different. By example, MacPhearais ( Mac+Pearas = son of Pierce ) has been anglicized as Corish , and MacAonghais has been anglicized as MacAngus , MacInnis , MacInnes , Innis , Innes , and Guinness . As with Gaelic and Germanic surnames, Welsh surnames and Cornish surnames had originally been mostly patronymic , though others contained toponymic elements, or were derived from trades, or personal characteristics. Surnames which remained fixed across generations, passed down along
963-613: A fluidity in how families chose to spell their names. Legal problems caused by spelling variations in Surnames were addressed by the Land Purchases Act. This Act established the principle of idem sonans, that is if differently spelled names "sounded the same," a claim of an unbroken line of ownership could be acknowledged. Since preserving the name's sound was legally important, common forms of Surname changes involved spelling adaptations that helped English readers replicate
1070-457: A forebear, however. Some signified an ancestral people or homeland, such as MacDhubhghaill (son of a dark-haired foreigner; referring to one type of Scandinavian), MacFhionnghaill (son of a fair-haired foreigner; also referring to a Scandinavian people), MacLachlainn or MacLachlainneach (son of a Scandinavian). Others indicated the town or village of a family's origin, sometimes disguised as an ancestor's name as in Ó Creachmhaoil , which prefixes
1177-576: A fugitive from ecclesiastical authorities, appeared in Geneva on 13 August 1553. Servetus was a fugitive on the run after he published The Restoration of Christianity (1553), Calvin scholar Bruce Gordon commented "Among its offenses were a denial of original sin and a bizarre and hardly comprehensible view of the Trinity." Decades earlier, in July 1530 he disputed with Johannes Oecolampadius in Basel and
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#17327979662011284-526: A heretic. The following day he was sentenced to burning at the stake, the same sentence as in Vienne. Some scholars claim that Calvin and other ministers asked that he be beheaded instead of burnt, knowing that burning at the stake was the only legal recourse. This plea was refused and on 27 October, Servetus was burnt alive at the Plateau of Champel at the edge of Geneva. After the death of Servetus, Calvin
1391-451: A house that was supposedly full of Frenchmen. The syndic Henri Aulbert tried to intervene, carrying with him the baton of office that symbolized his power. Perrin seized the baton and waved it over the crowd, which gave the appearance that he was taking power and initiating a coup d'état . The insurrection was soon over when another syndic appeared and ordered Perrin to go with him to the town hall. Perrin and other leaders were forced to flee
1498-517: A letter from Calvin, he appeared before the Consistory. By 1547, opposition to Calvin and other French refugee ministers had grown to constitute the majority of the syndics , the civil magistrates of Geneva. On 27 June an unsigned threatening letter in Genevan dialect was found at the pulpit of St. Pierre Cathedral where Calvin preached. Suspecting a plot against both the church and the state,
1605-536: A letter to Viret: I have been bereaved of the best friend of my life, of one who, if it has been so ordained, would willingly have shared not only my poverty but also my death. During her life she was the faithful helper of my ministry. From her I never experienced the slightest hindrance. Throughout the rest of his life in Geneva, he maintained several friendships from his early years including Montmor, Cordier, Cop, Farel, Melanchthon and Bullinger. Calvin encountered bitter opposition to his work in Geneva. Around 1546,
1712-590: A limited six-month period for heretics to reconcile with the Catholic faith, Calvin decided that there was no future for him in France. In August he set off for Strasbourg , a free imperial city of the Holy Roman Empire and a refuge for reformers. Due to military maneuvers of imperial and French forces , he was forced to make a detour to the south, bringing him to Geneva. Calvin had intended to stay only
1819-552: A minister. Calvin protested that the council did not have the legal authority to overturn Berthelier's excommunication. Unsure of how the council would rule, he hinted in a sermon on 3 September 1553 that he might be dismissed by the authorities. The council decided to re-examine the Ordonnances and on 18 September it voted in support of Calvin—excommunication was within the jurisdiction of the Consistory. Berthelier applied for reinstatement to another Genevan administrative assembly,
1926-471: A personal name now usually depends on the preferences of the bearer. Name changes are less common today for Europeans emigrating to the United States than they are for people originating in, or descending from those who emigrated from, East Asian countries. Requests that the bearer anglicize their personal name against their wishes are viewed as a form of racism or xenophobia. French immigrants to
2033-463: A prosaic view, writing to one correspondent: I, who have the air of being so hostile to celibacy, I am still not married and do not know whether I will ever be. If I take a wife it will be because, being better freed from numerous worries, I can devote myself to the Lord. Several candidates were presented to him including one young woman from a noble family. Reluctantly, Calvin agreed to the marriage, on
2140-411: A single night, but William Farel, a fellow French reformer residing in the city, implored him to stay and assist him in his work of reforming the church there. Calvin accepted his new role without any preconditions on his tasks or duties. The office to which he was initially assigned is unknown. He was eventually given the title of "reader", which most likely meant that he could give expository lectures on
2247-553: A system of shorthand, was assigned to record all of Calvin's sermons. An analysis of his sermons by T. H. L. Parker suggests that Calvin was a consistent preacher and his style changed very little over the years. John Calvin was also known for his thorough manner of working his way through the Bible in consecutive sermons. From March 1555 to July 1556, Calvin delivered two hundred sermons on Deuteronomy . Voltaire wrote about Calvin, Luther and Zwingli , "If they condemned celibacy in
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#17327979662012354-486: A thousand times over." Calvin also wrote that he was prepared to follow the Lord's calling. A plan was drawn up in which Viret would be appointed to take temporary charge in Geneva for six months while Bucer and Calvin would visit the city to determine the next steps. The city council pressed for the immediate appointment of Calvin in Geneva. By mid-1541, Strasbourg decided to lend Calvin to Geneva for six months. Calvin returned on 13 September 1541 with an official escort and
2461-635: A town in Picardy , a province of the Kingdom of France . He was the second of three sons who survived infancy. His mother, Jeanne le Franc, was the daughter of an innkeeper from Cambrai . She died of an unknown cause in Calvin's childhood, after having borne four more children. Calvin's father, Gérard Cauvin , had a prosperous career as the cathedral notary and registrar to the ecclesiastical court . Gérard intended his three sons—Charles, Jean, and Antoine—for
2568-400: A wagon for his family. In supporting Calvin's proposals for reforms, the council of Geneva passed the Ordonnances ecclésiastiques (Ecclesiastical Ordinances) on 20 November 1541. The ordinances defined four orders of ministerial function: pastors to preach and to administer the sacraments ; doctors to instruct believers in the faith; elders to provide discipline; and deacons to care for
2675-653: A wretch like me, but instead of defense, earnestly to supplicate you not to judge that fearful abandonment of your Word according to its deserts, from which in your wondrous goodness you have at last delivered me. Scholars have argued about the precise interpretation of these accounts, but most agree that his conversion corresponded with his break from the Roman Catholic Church. The Calvin biographer Bruce Gordon has stressed that "the two accounts are not antithetical, revealing some inconsistency in Calvin's memory, but rather [are] two different ways of expressing
2782-576: Is Chief Seattle . The name Seattle is an anglicisation of the modern Duwamish conventional spelling Si'ahl , equivalent to the modern Lushootseed spelling siʔaɫ Salishan pronunciation: [ˈsiʔaːɬ] . He is also known as Sealth , Seathle , Seathl , or See-ahth . Jean Calvin Christianity • Protestantism John Calvin ( / ˈ k æ l v ɪ n / ; Middle French : Jehan Cauvin ; French: Jean Calvin [ʒɑ̃ kalvɛ̃] ; 10 July 1509 – 27 May 1564)
2889-399: Is a surname. Notable people with the surname include: Bruce Weigert Paltrow (1943–2002) American film director and producer Gwyneth Paltrow (born 1972) American actress Jake Paltrow (born 1975) American film director Rebekah Neumann (born Rebekah Victoria Paltrow; 1978) an American entrepreneur and businesswoman [REDACTED] Surname list This page lists people with
2996-696: Is different from Wikidata All set index articles Anglicisation of names The anglicisation of personal names is the change of non-English-language personal names to spellings nearer English sounds, or substitution of equivalent or similar English personal names in the place of non-English personal names. A small number of figures, mainly very well-known classical and religious writers, appear under English names—or more typically under Latin names, in English texts. This practice became prevalent as early as in English-language translations of
3103-475: Is living in Vienne." When the inquisitor-general of France learned that Servetus was hiding in Vienne , according to Calvin under an assumed name, he contacted Cardinal François de Tournon , the secretary of the archbishop of Lyon, to take up the matter. Servetus was arrested and taken in for questioning. His letters to Calvin were presented as evidence of heresy, but he denied having written them, and later said he
3210-757: The Cold War . German Americans are the largest ethnic group in the USA numbering at almost 50 million or roughly 1/6th of US population. Immigration from Germany can be traced back to 1608 (Jamestown, VA), but migration was highest between the mid 19th century and early 20th century. From 1876 to 1923, Germany was the largest source of US Immigrants. From 1923 to 1970, it was the 2nd largest source of US Immigrants after Italy. A formal immigration process channeling immigrants through Ellis Island only began in 1892. Immigrants arriving prior to this, did not receive official immigration papers documenting their names. This created
3317-575: The Deux Cents (Two Hundred), in November. This body reversed the council's decision and stated that the final arbiter concerning excommunication should be the council. The ministers continued to protest, and as in the case of Servetus, the opinions of the Swiss churches were sought. The affair dragged on through 1554. Finally, on 22 January 1555, the council announced the decision of the Swiss churches:
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3424-709: The New Testament , where translators typically renamed figures such as Yeshu and Simon bar-Jonah as Jesus and Peter , and treated most of the other figures in the New Testament similarly. In contrast, translations of the Old Testament traditionally use the original names, more or less faithfully transliterated from the original Hebrew. Transatlantic explorers such as Zuan Chabotto and Cristoforo Colombo became popularly known as John Cabot and Christopher Columbus; English-speakers anglicized and Latinized
3531-545: The Sainte-Madeleine Church and the former Dominican Church, renamed the Temple Neuf . (All of these churches still exist, but none are in the architectural state of Calvin's days.) Calvin ministered to 400–500 members in his church. He preached or lectured every day, with two sermons on Sunday. Communion was celebrated monthly and congregational singing of the psalms was encouraged. He also worked on
3638-519: The University of Bourges in 1529. He was intrigued by Andreas Alciati , a humanist lawyer. Humanism was a European intellectual movement which stressed classical studies. During his 18-month stay in Bourges , Calvin learned Koine Greek , a necessity for studying the New Testament . Alternative theories have been suggested regarding the date of Calvin's religious conversion . Some have placed
3745-649: The surname Paltrow . If an internal link intending to refer to a specific person led you to this page, you may wish to change that link by adding the person's given name (s) to the link. Retrieved from " https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Paltrow&oldid=1255306264 " Categories : Surnames Surnames of Jewish origin Patronymic surnames Surnames of Polish origin Hidden categories: Articles containing Hebrew-language text Articles with short description Short description
3852-514: The 1940s, automobile registration documents, along with widespread implementation of social security, played an important role in stabilizing American surnames by legally documenting most of the US population's names. Italian surnames were often anglicized in the United States: for example, the i-ending of a number of Italian names becomes y , e , or ie . When Dutch immigrants arrived in
3959-534: The Augustinian and other Christian traditions. Various Congregational , Reformed and Presbyterian churches, which look to Calvin as the chief expositor of their beliefs, have spread throughout the world. Calvin was a tireless polemicist and apologetic writer who generated much controversy. He also exchanged cordial and supportive letters with many reformers, including Philipp Melanchthon and Heinrich Bullinger . In addition to his seminal Institutes of
4066-503: The Bible. Sometime in 1537 he was selected to be a "pastor" although he never received any pastoral consecration . For the first time, the lawyer-theologian took up pastoral duties such as baptisms , weddings, and church services. During late 1536, Farel drafted a confession of faith , and Calvin wrote separate articles on reorganizing the church in Geneva. On 16 January 1537, Farel and Calvin presented their Articles concernant l'organisation de l'église et du culte à Genève (Articles on
4173-422: The Catholic authorities sentenced him in absentia to death by slow burning. On his way to Italy, Servetus stopped in Geneva to visit " d'Espeville ", where he was recognized and arrested. Calvin's secretary, Nicholas de la Fontaine, composed a list of accusations that was submitted before the court. The prosecutor was Philibert Berthelier , a member of a libertine family and son of a famous Geneva patriot , and
4280-499: The Christian Religion , Calvin wrote commentaries on most books of the Bible, confessional documents , and various other theological treatises. Calvin was originally trained as a humanist lawyer. He broke from the Roman Catholic Church around 1530. After religious tensions erupted in widespread deadly violence against Protestant Christians in France, Calvin fled to Basel , Switzerland, where in 1536 he published
4387-657: The Christian doctrine of the Trinity and the concept of predestination. In the same year, Calvin's representative, Guillaume de Trie, sent letters alerting the French Inquisition to Servetus. Calling him a "Spanish-Portuguese", suspecting and accusing him of his recently proved Jewish converso origin. De Trie wrote down that "his proper name is Michael Servetus, but he currently calls himself Villeneuve, practicing medicine. He stayed for some time in Lyon, and now he
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4494-522: The Christian faith. The book was the first expression of his theology. Calvin updated the work and published new editions throughout his life. Shortly after its publication, he left Basel for Ferrara , Italy, where he briefly served as secretary to Princess Renée of France . By June he was back in Paris with his brother Antoine, who was resolving their father's affairs. Following the Edict of Coucy , which gave
4601-475: The Dark Ages. Originally, most Gaelic surnames were composed of the given name of a child's father, preceded by Mac ( son ) or Nic (or Ní , both being variants of nighean , meaning daughter ) depending on the gender . These surnames would not be passed down another generation, and a woman would keep her birth surname after marriage . The same was originally true of Germanic surnames which followed
4708-528: The Geneva version. At the end of 1542, Marot became a refugee in Geneva and contributed nineteen more psalms. Louis Bourgeois , also a refugee, lived and taught music in Geneva for sixteen years and Calvin took the opportunity to add his hymns, the most famous being the Old Hundredth . In the same year of 1542, Calvin published Catéchisme de l'Eglise de Genève (Catechism of the Church of Geneva), which
4815-464: The German composer Johann Christian Bach , the "London Bach", who was known as "John Bach" after emigrating to England. During the time in which there were large influxes of immigrants from Europe to the United States and United Kingdom during the 19th and 20th centuries, the given names and surnames of many immigrants were changed. This became known colloquially as the " Ellis Island Special ", after
4922-521: The Organization of the Church and its Worship at Geneva) to the city council. The document described the manner and frequency of their celebrations of the Eucharist , the reason for, and the method of, excommunication , the requirement to subscribe to the confession of faith, the use of congregational singing in the liturgy , and the revision of marriage laws. The council accepted the document on
5029-620: The U.S. immigrant processing center on Ellis Island ; contrary to popular myth, no names were ever legally changed at Ellis Island, and immigrants almost always changed them at their own discretion. Traditionally common Christian given names could be substituted: such as James for the etymologically connected Jacques. Alternatively phonetical similarities, such as Joe for Giò (Giovanni or Giorgio); or abbreviation, Harry for Harilaos, or Ricky for Enrique (Henry), as common in Spanish, instead of for (Ricardo) Richard as in English. The anglicisation of
5136-428: The US, some German Americans chose to blur their connections with their ancestral homeland, by translating part or whole of their surnames into English. Once again, translations that limited change in sound were preferred over those that sounded different. Relative to the sustained German mass immigration during the 19th and early 20th century, this practice of surname translation was unusual and not very widespread. In
5243-464: The United States (both those of Huguenot and French-Canadian background) often accommodated those unfamiliar with French pronunciations and spellings by altering their surnames (or encounter having them altered) in either of two ways: spellings were changed to fit the traditional pronunciation (Pariseau became Parizo, Boucher became Bushey, Mailloux became Mayhew, Cartier became Carter, Carpentier became Carpenter), or pronunciations were changed to fit
5350-532: The United States, often their names got changed. This was either done on purpose, to make the name easier to write and remember, or by accident because the clerk didn't know how to spell the name and wrote it down phonetically. Coastal Salish people were often given "Boston names" by early European settlers. These English names often had similar sounds to original Lushootseed names. When Lushootseed names were integrated into English, they were often recorded and pronounced very differently. An example of this
5457-659: The blame on Calvin for not being sympathetic enough toward the people of Geneva. It asked Bern to mediate with the aim of restoring the two ministers. The Geneva council refused to readmit the two men, who then took refuge in Basel. Subsequently, Farel received an invitation to lead the church in Neuchâtel . Calvin was invited to lead a church of French refugees in Strasbourg by that city's leading reformers, Martin Bucer and Wolfgang Capito . Initially, Calvin refused because Farel
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#17327979662015564-466: The case of the last two, they are lenited when the intended connotation is "son/daughter of" rather than a surname. By example, if stating that James (Scott) is the son of Calum (Stuart) in Gaelic, it would be phrased Seumas mac Chaluim , as distinct from Seumas MacCaluim for a James with the surname MacCaluim ) with the addition of an h after it (originally, this had been indicated in handscript by
5671-561: The church in Geneva, Calvin turned his enormous energies toward uplifting the French Protestant cause. As one historian explains: He supplied the dogma, the liturgy, and the moral ideas of the new religion, and he also created ecclesiastical, political, and social institutions in harmony with it. A born leader, he followed up his work with personal appeals. His vast correspondence with French Protestants shows not only much zeal but infinite pains and considerable tact and driving home
5778-452: The church. On 21 September 1540 the council commissioned one of its members, Ami Perrin , to find a way to recall Calvin. An embassy reached Calvin while he was at a colloquy , a conference to settle religious disputes, in Worms . His reaction to the suggestion was one of horror in which he wrote, "Rather would I submit to death a hundred times than to that cross on which I had to perish daily
5885-433: The city's protection, they were able to form their own reformed church under John Knox and William Whittingham and eventually carried Calvin's ideas on doctrine and polity back to England and Scotland. Within Geneva, Calvin's main concern was the creation of a collège , an institute for the education of children. A site for the school was selected on 25 March 1558 and it opened the following year on 5 June 1559. Although
5992-536: The city. With the approval of Calvin, the other plotters who remained in the city were found and executed. The opposition to Calvin's church polity came to an end. Calvin's authority was practically uncontested during his final years, and he enjoyed an international reputation as a reformer distinct from Martin Luther. Initially, Luther and Calvin had mutual respect for each other. A doctrinal conflict had developed between Luther and Zurich reformer Huldrych Zwingli on
6099-481: The civil court's decision. The libertines continued organizing opposition, insulting the appointed ministers, and challenging the authority of the Consistory. The council straddled both sides of the conflict, alternately admonishing and upholding Calvin. When Perrin was elected first syndic in February 1552, Calvin's authority appeared to be at its lowest point. After some losses before the council, Calvin believed he
6206-516: The condition that she would learn French. Although a wedding date was planned for March 1540, he remained reluctant and the wedding never took place. He later wrote that he would never think of marrying her, "unless the Lord had entirely bereft me of my wits". Instead, in August of that year, he married Idelette de Bure , a widow who had two children from her first marriage. Geneva reconsidered its expulsion of Calvin. Church attendance had dwindled and
6313-409: The council appointed a commission to investigate. Jacques Gruet , a Genevan member of Favre's group, was arrested and incriminating evidence was found when his house was searched. Under torture, he confessed to several crimes including writing the letter left in the pulpit which threatened the church leaders. A civil court condemned Gruet to death and he was beheaded on 26 July. Calvin was not opposed to
6420-480: The council decided that all sentencing would be carried out by the government. In 1542, Calvin adapted a service book used in Strasbourg, publishing La Forme des Prières et Chants Ecclésiastiques (The Form of Prayers and Church Hymns). Calvin recognized the power of music and he intended that it be used to support scripture readings. The original Strasbourg psalter contained twelve psalms by Clément Marot and Calvin added several more hymns of his own composition in
6527-402: The council decided to write to other Swiss cities for their opinions, thus mitigating their own responsibility for the final decision. While waiting for the responses, the council also asked Servetus if he preferred to be judged in Vienne or in Geneva. He begged to stay in Geneva. On 20 October the replies from Zurich, Basel, Bern, and Schaffhausen were read and the council condemned Servetus as
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#17327979662016634-525: The course, he entered the Collège de Montaigu as a philosophy student. In 1525 or 1526, Gérard withdrew his son from the Collège de Montaigu and enrolled him in the University of Orléans to study law. According to contemporary biographers Theodore Beza and Nicolas Colladon , Gérard believed that Calvin would earn more money as a lawyer than as a priest. After a few years of quiet study, Calvin entered
6741-441: The date of his conversion around 1533, shortly before he resigned from his chaplaincy. In this view, his resignation is the direct evidence for his conversion to the evangelical faith. However, T. H. L. Parker argues that, although this date is a terminus for his conversion, the more likely date is in late 1529 or early 1530. The main evidence for his conversion is contained in two significantly different accounts of his conversion. In
6848-399: The end of January 1546, Pierre Ameaux, a maker of playing cards who had already been in conflict with the Consistory, attacked Calvin by calling him a "Picard", an epithet denoting anti-French sentiment, and accused him of false doctrine. Ameaux was punished by the council and forced to make expiation by parading through the city and begging God for forgiveness. A few months later Ami Perrin,
6955-400: The end, so that the such as 'ap Hywell' became Powell , and 'ap Siôn' to Jones or Upjohn . The first generation to adopt this Agmicisation hereafter handed it down unchanged to children. Many Cornish ( Kernewek ) names have been anglicised in similar ways. Anglicisation of non-English-language names was common for immigrants, or even visitors, to English-speaking countries. An example is
7062-414: The extent to which Geneva was a theocracy . On the one hand, Calvin's theology clearly called for separation between church and state. Other historians have stressed the enormous political power wielded on a daily basis by the clerics. During his ministry in Geneva, Calvin preached over two thousand sermons. Initially he preached twice on Sunday and three times during the week. This proved to be too heavy
7169-513: The first edition of the Institutes . In that same year, Calvin was recruited by Frenchman William Farel to join the Reformation in Geneva , where he regularly preached sermons throughout the week. However, the governing council of the city resisted the implementation of their ideas, and both men were expelled. At the invitation of Martin Bucer , Calvin proceeded to Strasbourg , where he became
7276-486: The first, found in his Commentary on the Book of Psalms , Calvin portrayed his conversion as a sudden change of mind, brought about by God: God by a sudden conversion subdued and brought my mind to a teachable frame, which was more hardened in such matters than might have been expected from one at my early period of life. Having thus received some taste and knowledge of true godliness, I was immediately inflamed with so intense
7383-603: The interpretation of the eucharist. Calvin's opinion on the issue forced Luther to place him in Zwingli's camp. Calvin actively participated in the polemics that were exchanged between the Lutheran and Reformed branches of the Reformation movement. At the same time, Calvin was dismayed by the lack of unity among the reformers. He took steps toward rapprochement with Bullinger by signing the Consensus Tigurinus ,
7490-582: The male line of descent (provided parents were married) were adopted under the dictate of the English Government from the sixteenth century . As in the Gaelic-speaking areas, many Welsh ( Cymric ) patronyms were anglicised by omitting the prefix indicating son of and either exchanging the father's Welsh forename for its English equivalent, or re-spelling it according to English spelling rules, and, either way, most commonly adding -s to
7597-431: The man who had brought Calvin to Geneva, moved into open opposition. Perrin had married Françoise Favre, daughter of François Favre, a well-established Genevan merchant. Both Perrin's wife and father-in-law had previous conflicts with the Consistory. The court noted that many of Geneva's notables, including Perrin, had breached a law against dancing. Initially, Perrin ignored the court when he was summoned, but after receiving
7704-456: The minister of a church of French refugees. He continued to support the reform movement in Geneva, and in 1541 he was invited back to lead the church of the city. Following his return, Calvin introduced new forms of church government and liturgy , despite opposition from several powerful families in the city who tried to curb his authority. During this period, Michael Servetus , a Spaniard regarded by both Roman Catholics and Protestants as having
7811-766: The move, sheltering with his friend Louis du Tillet in Angoulême and taking refuge in Noyon and Orléans. He was finally forced to flee France during the Affair of the Placards in mid-October 1534. In that incident, unknown reformers had posted placards in various cities criticizing the Roman Catholic mass , to which adherents of the Roman Catholic church responded with violence against the would-be Reformers and their sympathizers. In January 1535, Calvin joined Cop in Basel,
7918-658: The name of the Polish astronomer Mikołaj Kopernik to (Nicholas) Copernicus, and the English-speaking world typically knows the French-born theologian Jean Calvin as John Calvin. Such anglicisations became less usual after the sixteenth century. Most Gaelic language surnames of Ireland, Scotland, and the Isle of Man have been anglicized at some time. The Gaels were among the first Europeans to adopt surnames during
8025-475: The original Ordonnances were to be kept and the Consistory was to regain its official powers. The libertines' downfall began with the February 1555 elections. By then, many of the French refugees had been granted citizenship and with their support, Calvin's partisans elected the majority of the syndics and the councilors. On 16 May the libertines took to the streets in a drunken protest and attempted to burn down
8132-460: The original German pronunciation. The First and Second World Wars created pockets of xenophobia against German Americans. During the same period, The Anti-Saloon league , successfully lobbied the Government to enact prohibition, using racist "us vs them" propaganda against German Americans, who owned a large percentage of American breweries. During the window of anti-German hostilities in
8239-651: The pattern [father's given name]+son/daughter (this is still the case in Iceland , as exemplified by the singer Björk Guðmundsdóttir and former Prime Minister Sigmundur Davíð Gunnlaugsson ). When referring to siblings collectively (or to members of a family or clan that share a "Mac-" surname), the prefix for son or daughter was pluralised. By example, MacAoidh (son of Hugh ) becomes MicAoidh ( sons of Hugh ) and Clann MhicAoidh ( literally children/descendants of Hugh ). The Jacksons in English (with Jack being derived from John) would in Gaelic be rendered a' MhicSheain (
8346-493: The political climate had changed; as Bern and Geneva quarreled over land, their alliance frayed. When Cardinal Jacopo Sadoleto wrote a letter to the city council inviting Geneva to return to the Catholic faith, the council searched for an ecclesiastical authority to respond to him. At first Pierre Viret was consulted, but when he refused, the council asked Calvin. He agreed and his Responsio ad Sadoletum (Letter to Sadoleto) strongly defended Geneva's position concerning reforms in
8453-546: The poor and needy. They also called for the creation of the Consistoire ( Consistory ), an ecclesiastical court composed of the elders and the ministers. The city government retained the power to summon persons before the court, and the Consistory could judge only ecclesiastical matters having no civil jurisdiction. Originally, the court had the power to mete out sentences, with excommunication as its most severe penalty. The government contested this power and on 19 March 1543
8560-565: The priesthood. Young Calvin was particularly precocious. By age 12, he was employed by the bishop as a clerk and received the tonsure , cutting his hair to symbolize his dedication to the Church. He also won the patronage of an influential family, the Montmors. Through their assistance, Calvin was able to attend the Collège de la Marche , Paris , where he learned Latin from one of its greatest teachers, Mathurin Cordier . Once he completed
8667-463: The priests, and opened the gates of the convents, it was only to turn all society into a convent. Shows and entertainments were expressly forbidden by their religion; and for more than two hundred years there was not a single musical instrument allowed in the city of Geneva. They condemned auricular confession, but they enjoined a public one; and in Switzerland, Scotland, and Geneva it was performed
8774-422: The reformers, Nicolas Cop , was rector of the university. On 1 November 1533 he devoted his inaugural address to the need for reform and renewal in the Roman Catholic Church. The address provoked a strong reaction from the faculty, who denounced it as heretical, forcing Cop to flee to Basel . Calvin, a close friend of Cop, was implicated in the offense, and for the next year he was forced into hiding. He remained on
8881-453: The same as penance." Very little is known about Calvin's personal life in Geneva. His house and furniture were owned by the council. The house was big enough to accommodate his family as well as Antoine's family and some servants. On 28 July 1542, Idelette gave birth to a son, Jacques, but he was born prematurely and survived only briefly. Idelette fell ill in 1545 and died on 29 March 1549. Calvin never married again. He expressed his sorrow in
8988-400: The same day. As the year progressed, Calvin and Farel's reputation with the council began to suffer. The council was reluctant to enforce the subscription requirement, as only a few citizens had subscribed to their confession of faith. On 26 November, the two ministers hotly debated the council over the issue. Furthermore, France was taking an interest in forming an alliance with Geneva and as
9095-546: The same reality." By 1532, Calvin received his licentiate in law and published his first book, a commentary on Seneca 's De Clementia . After uneventful trips to Orléans and his hometown of Noyon, Calvin returned to Paris in October 1533. During this time, tensions rose at the Collège Royal (later to become the Collège de France) between the humanists/reformers and the conservative senior faculty members. One of
9202-534: The school was a single institution, it was divided into two parts: a grammar school called the collège or schola privata and an advanced school called the académie or schola publica . Calvin tried to recruit two professors for the institute, Mathurin Cordier, his old friend and Latin scholar who was now based in Lausanne , and Emmanuel Tremellius , the former Regius professor of Hebrew in Cambridge. Neither
9309-486: The second edition of the Institutes . Calvin was dissatisfied with its original structure as a catechism, a primer for young Christians. For the second edition, published in 1539, Calvin changed its format in favor of systematically presenting the main doctrines from the Bible. In the process, the book was enlarged from six chapters to seventeen. He concurrently worked on another book, the Commentary on Romans , which
9416-458: The sessions were led by Pierre Tissot, Perrin's brother-in-law. The libertines allowed the trial to drag on in an attempt to harass Calvin. The difficulty in using Servetus as a weapon against Calvin was that the heretical reputation of Servetus was widespread and most of the cities in Europe were observing and awaiting the outcome of the trial. This posed a dilemma for the libertines, so on 21 August
9523-480: The smith ) were anglicized as McGowan , Gowan , McGavin , and Gavin . In surnames which had been prefixed Mac (which includes most Manx surnames), the final hard c sound remained when the Mac was removed. As Gaelic spelling rules required the first letter of a name preceded by Mac or Nic to be lenited (providing it was a consonant other than l, n, or r, which are not generally lenited in Gaelic, or c or g; although in
9630-406: The sons of John ). Over the centuries, under the influence of post- Medieval English practice , this type of surname has become static over generations, handed down the male lineage to all successive generations so that it no longer indicates the given name of a holder's father any more than the suffix -son on a Germanic language surname does today. Among English-speaking peoples of Gaelic heritage,
9737-1265: The spelling (Benoît, pronounced French pronunciation: [bənwa] , became Benway, or Bennett / b ɛ n ˈ ɔɪ t / ). Some Greek names are anglicized using the etymologically related name: Agni: Agnes; Alexandros/Alexis: Alexander/Alex; Alexandra: Alexandra/Alex; Andreas: Andrew; Christophoros: Christopher; Evgenios/Evgenis: Eugene/Gene; Eleni: Helen; Georgios/Yorgos: George; Ioannis/Yannis: John; Irini: Irene; Katharini: Catherine/Kate; Markos: Mark; Michail/Michalis: Michael; Nikolaos: Nicholas; Pavlos: Paul; Petros: Peter; Stephanos: Stephen; Theodoros: Theodore/Ted; and so on. Besides simple abbreviation or anglicisation of spelling, there are some conventional English versions of or nicknames for Greek names which were formerly widely used and are still encountered: Hundreds of Spiritual Christian Doukhobors who migrated from Russia to Canada from 1899 to 1930, changed their surnames. Genealogist Jonathan Kalmakoff posted comprehensive lists for Many descendants of Spiritual Christians from Russia in California, whose parents immigrated to Los Angeles (1904–1912), hid their family surnames due to real and perceived ethnic discrimination during
9844-421: The two ministers were Frenchmen, councilors had begun to question their loyalty. Finally, a major ecclesiastical-political quarrel developed when the city of Bern , Geneva's ally in the reformation of the Swiss churches, proposed to introduce uniformity in the church ceremonies. One proposal required the use of unleavened bread for the Eucharist . The two ministers were unwilling to follow Bern's lead and delayed
9951-412: The uncoordinated forces coalesced into an identifiable group whom he referred to as the libertines , but who preferred to be called either Spirituels or Patriots. According to Calvin, these were people who felt that after being liberated through grace , they were exempted from both ecclesiastical and civil law. The group consisted of wealthy, politically powerful, and interrelated families of Geneva. At
10058-423: The use of Nic as a prefix for daughters has been replaced by Mac , regardless of sex (as per Geraldine McGowan , Alyth McCormack , and Sarah McLachlan ). Wives also began to take on the surnames of their husbands. Another common pattern of surname was similar to that preceded by Mac/Nic, but instead was preceded by Ó or Ui, signifying a grandchild or descendant. Not all Gaelic surnames signified relationship to
10165-595: The use of such bread until a synod in Zurich could be convened to make the final decision. The council ordered Calvin and Farel to use unleavened bread for the Easter Eucharist. In protest, they refused to administer communion during the Easter service. This caused a riot during the service. The next day, the council told Farel and Calvin to leave Geneva. Farel and Calvin then went to Bern and Zurich to plead their case. The resulting synod in Zurich placed most of
10272-491: Was a French theologian , pastor and reformer in Geneva during the Protestant Reformation . He was a principal figure in the development of the system of Christian theology later called Calvinism , including its doctrines of predestination and of God's absolute sovereignty in the salvation of the human soul from death and eternal damnation . Calvinist doctrines were influenced by and elaborated upon
10379-405: Was acclaimed a defender of Christianity, but his ultimate triumph over the libertines was still two years away. He had always insisted that the Consistory retain the power of excommunication, despite the council's past decision to take it away. During Servetus's trial, Philibert Berthelier asked the council for permission to take communion, as he had been excommunicated the previous year for insulting
10486-567: Was available, but he succeeded in obtaining Theodore Beza as rector. Within five years there were 1,200 students in the grammar school and 300 in the advanced school. The collège eventually became the Collège Calvin , one of the college preparatory schools of Geneva; the académie became the University of Geneva . Calvin was deeply committed to reforming his homeland, France. The Protestant movement had been energetic, but lacked central organizational direction. With financial support from
10593-497: Was defeated; on 24 July 1553 he asked the council to allow him to resign. Although the libertines controlled the council, his request was refused. The opposition realized that they could curb Calvin's authority, but they did not have enough power to banish him. The turning point in Calvin's fortunes occurred when Michael Servetus, a brilliant Spanish polymath who introduced the Islamic idea of pulmonary circulation to Europe, and
10700-547: Was eventually expelled. He went to Strasbourg, where he published a pamphlet against the Trinity. Bucer publicly refuted it and asked Servetus to leave. After returning to Basel, Servetus published Two Books of Dialogues on the Trinity ( Latin : Dialogorum de Trinitate libri duo ) which caused a sensation among Reformers and Catholics alike. When John Calvin alerted the Inquisition in Spain about this publication, an order
10807-404: Was inspired by Bucer's Kurze Schrifftliche Erklärung of 1534. Calvin had written an earlier catechism during his first stay in Geneva which was largely based on Martin Luther 's Large Catechism . The first version was arranged pedagogically, describing Law, Faith, and Prayer. The 1542 version was rearranged for theological reasons, covering Faith first, then Law and Prayer. Historians debate
10914-427: Was issued for Servetus's arrest. Calvin and Servetus were first brought into contact in 1546 through a common acquaintance, Jean Frellon of Lyon; they exchanged letters debating doctrine; Calvin used a pseudonym as Charles d' Espeville and Servetus used the moniker Michel de Villeneuve. Eventually, Calvin lost patience and refused to respond; by this time Servetus had written around thirty letters to Calvin. Calvin
11021-494: Was not included in the invitation, but relented when Bucer appealed to him. By September 1538 Calvin had taken up his new position in Strasbourg, fully expecting that this time it would be permanent; a few months later, he applied for and was granted citizenship of the city. During his time in Strasbourg, Calvin was not attached to one particular church, but held his office successively in the Saint-Nicolas Church,
11128-518: Was not sure it was his handwriting. He said, after swearing before the holy gospel, that "he was Michel De Villeneuve Doctor in Medicine about 42 years old, native of Tudela of the kingdom of Navarre , a city under the obedience to the Emperor". The following day he said: "..although he was not Servetus he assumed the person of Servet for debating with Calvin". He managed to escape from prison, and
11235-565: Was particularly outraged when Servetus sent him a copy of the Institutes of the Christian Religion heavily annotated with arguments pointing to errors in the book. When Servetus mentioned that he would come to Geneva, "Espeville" (Calvin) wrote a letter to Farel on 13 February 1546 noting that if Servetus were to come, he would not assure him safe conduct: "for if he came, as far as my authority goes, I would not let him leave alive." In 1553 Servetus published Christianismi Restitutio (English: The Restoration of Christianity), in which he rejected
11342-659: Was published in March 1540. The book was a model for his later commentaries: it included his own Latin translation from the Greek rather than the Latin Vulgate , an exegesis , and an exposition . In the dedicatory letter, Calvin praised the work of his predecessors Philipp Melanchthon , Heinrich Bullinger , and Martin Bucer, but he also took care to distinguish his own work from theirs and to criticize some of their shortcomings. Calvin's friends urged him to marry. Calvin took
11449-434: Was sometimes anglicized as Fahey or Fay , identically to the given name; Ó Leannáin and Ó Lionáin have both been anglicized as Lennon ; Ó Ceallaigh and Ó Cadhla have been anglicized as Kelly ). Where they were retained, Mac was often rendered Mc , M', or Mag- (the last is seen in renderings such as Maguire for Mac Uidhir ) and Ó/Ui became O' . MacGhobhainn , Mac a'Ghobhainn and Mac Gabhainn ( son of
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