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94-564: Panama maintains armed police and internal security forces, and small air and maritime forces. They are tasked with law enforcement and can perform limited military actions. Since 2010 they have reported to the Ministry of Public Security. Panama's first army was formed in 1903 when the commander of a brigade of the Colombian army defected to the pro-separation side during Panama's fight for separation from Colombia . His brigade became

188-449: A defence ministry . Depending on the state, a state's internal security will be maintained by either the ordinary police or more militarised security forces (known as gendarmerie or, literally, the internal troops ). Other specialized internal security agencies may exist to augment these main forces, such as border guards , special police units , or aspects of the state's intelligence agencies . In some states, internal security may be

282-522: A sovereign state or other self-governing territories , generally by upholding the national law and defending against internal security threats. This task and role differs from border security . Responsibility for internal security may range from police to paramilitary forces, and in exceptional circumstances, the military itself. Threats to the general peace may range from minor civil unrest , large scale violence , or even an armed insurgency . Threats to internal security may be directed at either

376-743: A Pikemen and Musketeers' Company and Cavalry Squad wearing historical uniforms from the 16th to 17th centuries, at the start of Spanish rule in Panama, in the tradition of the Honourable Artillery Company . While training for other ranks is per their respective training commands, officer training for the PFF is done at the National Police Academy "Doctor Justo Arosemena" in Panama City and all officers graduate with

470-403: A U.S. citizen convicted of espionage by Noriega. Fort Amador was secured by elements of the 1st Battalion (Airborne), 508th Parachute Infantry Regiment, 5th Infantry Division [Scouts] and 59th Engineer Company (sappers) in a nighttime air assault which secured the fort in the early hours of December 20. Fort Amador was a key position because of its relationship to the large oil farms adjacent to

564-624: A bachelor's degree and are commissioned Second Lieutenants. Many officers of the PPF nowadays are also graduates of foreign exchange programs in Latin American military and police academies. NCOs and basic level constables are trained in the National Police Institute Belisario Porras. Internal security Internal security is the act of keeping peace within the borders of

658-730: A coalition that won the elections in 1952. One of his first acts as President was to reorganize the National Police along military lines with a new name, Guardia Nacional de Panamá (National Guard of Panamá). The new grouping retained police functions as well. With a new name came increased American funding. In 1968, the Guard overthrew President Arnulfo Arias in a coup d'état led by Major Boris Martínez and others, including then Major Omar Torrijos , after newly elected Arias forced senior officers into retirement or assignments in distant provinces by presidential order. They completed

752-473: A residence. Navy SEALs destroyed Noriega's private jet and sunk a Panamanian gunboat . A Panamanian ambush killed four SEALs and wounded nine. Other military command centers throughout the country were also attacked. C Company 1st Battalion (Airborne) 508th PIR was assigned the task of securing La Comandancia , the central headquarters of the PDF. This attack touched off several fires, one of which destroyed most of

846-555: A resolution which determined that the U.S. invasion was a "flagrant violation of international law." A similar resolution proposed by the United Nations Security Council was supported by the majority of its member nations but vetoed by the U.S., the United Kingdom and France. Independent experts and observers have also concluded that the invasion also exceeded the authority of the president under

940-646: A roadblock outside PDF headquarters in the El Chorrillo neighborhood of Panama City . Marine Captain Richard E. Hadded, Navy Lieutenant Michael J. Wilson, Army Captain Barry L. Rainwater and Marine First Lieutenant Robert Paz had left the U.S. base at Fort Clayton and were on their way to have dinner at the Marriott Caesar Park Hotel in downtown Panama City. The Pentagon reported that

1034-484: A state of war directed by the U.S. against Panama, in the form of what he claimed were harsh economic sanctions and provocative military maneuvers ( Operations Purple Storm and Sand Flea) that were prohibited by the Torrijos-Carter Treaties. Bush's four reasons for the invasion provided sufficient justification to establish bipartisan Congressional approval and support. However, the secrecy before

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1128-402: A states is inviolable; it may not be the object, even temporarily, of military occupation or of other measures of force taken by another state, directly or indirectly, on any grounds whatever." Other international law experts who have examined the legal justification of the invasion have concluded that it was a "gross violation" of international law. The United Nations General Assembly passed

1222-609: A three-hour firefight against PDF troops who refused to surrender a dog kennel which (it was later discovered) they were using to store weapons. Bray was said to be the first woman to lead U.S. troops in battle, and her role in the firefight led to controversy in the media and in Congress over women's roles in the U.S. military. Bray requested and received a discharge in 1991. First Lieutenant Lisa Kutschera and Warrant Officer Debra Mann piloted UH-60 "Blackhawk" helicopters ferrying infantry troops. Their helicopters came under fire during

1316-492: Is organized into a division of 2 brigades, all in the Colombia–Panama border , plus a special forces brigade, an independent brigade patrolling the border with Costa Rica and a infantry brigade responsible for central Panama. The National Aeronaval Service has a Marine battalion, aviation security police group, an air group, naval squadron and SAR unit. The IPS has a full Presidential Guard battalion plus, starting from 2015,

1410-524: The 317th Tactical Airlift Wing (which was equipped with the Adverse Weather Aerial Delivery System or AWADS) and 314th Tactical Airlift Wing , AC-130 Spectre gunships, OA-37B Dragonfly observation and attack aircraft, C-141 Starlifter and C-5 Galaxy strategic transports, F-117A Nighthawk stealth ground-attack aircraft flown by the 37th Tactical Fighter Wing , and AH-64 Apache attack helicopters. The invasion

1504-592: The Canal Zone to protect and maintain American control of the strategically important Panama Canal . On September 7, 1977, U.S. President Jimmy Carter and the de facto leader of Panama, General Omar Torrijos , signed the Torrijos–Carter Treaties, which set in motion the process of handing over the canal to Panamanian control by 2000. Although the canal was destined for Panamanian administration,

1598-423: The Canal Zone . After a U.S. Marine officer was shot dead at a PDF roadblock, Bush authorized the execution of the Panama invasion plan. On December 20, the U.S. invasion of Panama began. Panamanian forces were rapidly overwhelmed, although operations continued for several weeks. Endara was sworn in as president shortly after the start of the invasion. Noriega eluded capture for several days before seeking refuge in

1692-460: The Holy See diplomatic mission in Panama City. He surrendered on January 3, 1990, and was then flown to the U.S., where he was tried, convicted and sentenced to 40 years in prison. The Pentagon estimated that 516 Panamanians were killed during the invasion, including 314 soldiers and 202 civilians. A total of 23 U.S. soldiers and 3 U.S. civilians were killed. The United Nations General Assembly ,

1786-599: The Organization of American States and the European Parliament condemned the invasion as a violation of international law. The United States invasion of Panama can be seen as a rare example of democratization by foreign-imposed regime change that was effective long-term. In the late 20th century, the United States had maintained numerous military bases and a substantial garrison throughout

1880-569: The Pentagon began pushing for a U.S. invasion. Reagan refused due to Bush's ties to Noriega through his previous positions in the CIA and their potentially negative impact on Bush's presidential campaign . Later negotiations involved dropping the drug-related indictments. In March 1988, Noriega's forces resisted an attempted coup d'etat against his regime. As relations continued to deteriorate, Noriega appeared to shift his Cold War allegiance toward

1974-743: The United Nations Security Council . Articles 18 and 20 of the Charter of the Organization of American States , written in part in reaction to the history of U.S. military interventions in Central America , also explicitly prohibit the use of force by member states: "[n]o state or group of states has the right to intervene, directly or indirectly, for any reason whatever, in the internal affairs of any other state". The OAS charter further states that "the territory of

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2068-740: The United States Constitution . Article I, Section 8 of the Constitution grants the power to declare war solely to the Congress, not to the president. The Bush administration argued that the military intervention was constitutional because the Panamanian national assembly had declared a state of war with the United States. This argument is supported by the Federal Convention, where James Madison moved to insert "declare" instead of "make" in "make war", leaving to

2162-471: The Department of Defense Schools. The adult son of another teacher, Rick Paul, was also killed by friendly fire as he ran towards an American roadblock. Juan Antonio Rodriguez Moreno, a Spanish freelance press photographer on assignment for El País , was killed outside of the Marriott Caesar Park Hotel in Panama City early on December 21. In June 1990, his family filed a claim for wrongful death against

2256-518: The El Chorrillos neighborhood, guarded by Noriega's Dignity Battalions . Military police units from Fort Bragg , North Carolina , deployed via strategic airlift into Howard Air Force Base the next morning and secured key government buildings in Panama City. MPs seized PDF weapons, vehicles and supplies during house-to-house searches in the following days and conducted urban combat operations against snipers and Dignity Battalion holdouts for

2350-768: The General Attorney's control. In November 2008, the Servicio Aéreo Nacional (National Air Service) merged with its maritime counterpart, the Servicio Maritimo Nacional (National Maritime Service) to become the Servicio Nacional Aeronaval (National Aeronaval Service), also the new Servicio Nacional de Fronteras (National Borders Service, at the time a special branch of the National Police)

2444-1058: The Institutional Protection Service reports directly to the Ministry of the Presidency. In 2012, the National Customs Authority, the National Immigration Service (SNM), and the National Passport Service, following advice from the government of the United States of America would merge and form other security sectors autonomous or entity of the Republic of Panama, the Government Executive issued Decree 871 of November 14, 2012 that creates an interagency commission to first handle structuring, coordination, and technical processes for

2538-621: The National Police, National Borders Service, National Aeronaval Service and the National Immigration Service) and the Government Ministry (an Executive branch in charge of themes related with public governance and internal security) The Ministry of Public Security was formally created on April 14 the same year with the passage of Law no.15 by the National Assembly proving for its creation. Only

2632-582: The Office of the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff claimed that the music was used principally to prevent parabolic microphones from being used to eavesdrop on negotiations and not as a psychological weapon based around Noriega's supposed loathing of rock music. Noriega finally surrendered to U.S. forces on January 3, 1990. He was immediately put on an MC-130E Combat Talon I aircraft and flown to

2726-447: The PDF main role as a tool for political control of the population by intimidation, coercion and even direct aggression, instead of the legitimate role of armed forces in national defense, was proved when they showed to be largely ineffective as a combat force during Operation Just Cause , when U.S. Forces invaded Panama and overthrew Noriega in 1989, where only some individuals (including last-minute civilian volunteers who despite opposing

2820-574: The Panamanian army. In 1904, the army tried to overthrow the government but failed. The United States persuaded Panama that a standing army could threaten the security of the Panama Canal Zone . Instead, the country set up a "National Police." For 48 years, this was the only armed force in Panama. However, starting in the late 1930s, the National Police attracted several new recruits who had attended military academies in other Latin American countries. Combined with increased spending on

2914-469: The Panamanian government declared December 20 to be a National Day of Mourning ( Dia de duelo nacional ), to be marked by lowering the national flag to half-staff. The Washington Post disclosed several rulings of the Office of Legal Counsel , issued shortly before the invasion, regarding the U.S. forces being charged with making an arrest abroad. One ruling interpreted an executive order which prohibits

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3008-471: The Panamanian leader step down after his criminal activities were publicly exposed in The New York Times by Seymour Hersh . Reagan pressured Noriega with several drug-related indictments in U.S. courts; however, since extradition laws between Panama and the U.S. were weak, Noriega deemed this threat not credible and did not submit to Reagan's demands. In 1988, Elliot Abrams and others in

3102-526: The Panamanian people while the U.S. reinforced its Canal Zone garrison, and increased the tempo of training and other activities intended to put pressure on Noriega. In October 1989, Noriega foiled another coup attempt by members of the Panama Defense Forces (PDF), led by Major Moisés Giroldi . Bush, under mounting pressure, declared that the U.S. would not negotiate with a drug trafficker and denied knowledge of Noriega's involvement with

3196-733: The Presidential Guard. The PPF is also capable of performing limited military duties. In contrast to the former PDF, the Panamanian Public Forces is on public record and under control of the (elected) government. In 2007 the Judicial and Technical Police (PTJ) was split into the Judicial Investigation Directorate (DIJ), which was merged back into the National Police, and a group of minor technical services that were to remain under

3290-692: The Public Security Ministry directly and is regarded as a de facto 5th branch. As of 2012, the National Police Force's maneuver units comprised: The IISS also noted that there were reports of a special forces unit having been formed. At this time, the National Public Forces had a total strength of 11,000 personnel and was equipped only with small arms. Today, the National Police has a total of 25,000 active sworn personnel. The National Border Service

3384-548: The Soviet bloc, soliciting and receiving military aid from Cuba , Nicaragua, and Libya . U.S. military planners began preparing contingency plans to invade Panama. In September 1988, Panamanian authorities reported that they had arrested 16 people on suspicion of plotting another coup d'état. Twelve of the conspirators were alleged to be part of the "National Patriotic Committee", a U.S.-supported guerrilla group that sought to oust Noriega. Panamanian newspaper Critica claimed that

3478-472: The Torrijos-Carter Treaties, such as ignoring PDF roadblocks and conducting short-notice "Category Three" military exercises on security-sensitive targets, with the express goal of provoking PDF soldiers. U.S. SOUTHCOM kept a list of abuses against U.S. servicemen and civilians by the PDF while the orders to incite PDF soldiers were in place. As for the Panamanian legislature's war declaration, Noriega insisted in his memoirs that this declaration referred to

3572-498: The U.S. government. When the claim was rejected by the U.S. government in 1992, the Spanish government sent a Note Verbale extending diplomatic protection to Rodriguez and demanding compensation on behalf of his family. The U.S. government again rejected the claim, disputing both its liability for warzone deaths in general and whether Rodriguez had been killed by U.S. rather than Panamanian gunfire. Operation Just Cause involved

3666-504: The U.S. had committed an act of aggression by invading Panama and was trying to conceal a new manifestation of its interventionist policy of force in Central America. On December 29, the United Nations General Assembly voted 75–20, with 40 abstentions, to condemn the invasion as a flagrant violation of international law. On December 22, the Organization of American States (OAS) passed a resolution denouncing

3760-579: The U.S. participated in the reconstruction of communities and advocacy for human rights. Operation plans directed against Panama had evolved from plans designed to defend the Panama Canal. They became more aggressive as the situation between the two nations deteriorated. The Prayer Book series of plans included rehearsals for a possible clash (Operation Purple Storm) and missions to secure U.S. sites (Operation Bushmaster). The original operation, in which U.S. troops were deployed to Panama in early 1989,

3854-965: The U.S. rather than the Soviet Union in Central America , notably in sabotaging the forces of the Sandinista government in Nicaragua, and the revolutionaries of the Farabundo Martí National Liberation Front (FMLN) in El Salvador. Noriega received upward of $ 100,000 per year from the 1960s until the 1980s, when his salary was increased to $ 200,000 per year. Although he worked with the Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) to restrict illegal drug shipments , Noriega

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3948-418: The U.S., the United Kingdom and France, which cited its right of self-defense of 35,000 Americans present on the Panama Canal. Peru recalled its ambassador from the U.S. in protest of the invasion. In Romania , President Nicolae Ceaușescu , who was being overthrown in a violent revolution , criticized the invasion as "brutal aggression". Polls show that the Panamanian people overwhelmingly supported

4042-460: The UESAT (Unidades Especiales de Servicio Anti Terror, an Israeli trained counter-terrorism strike force). That way, he was able not only to maintain an iron grip on day to day political affairs but also to survive various attempted coups. The "Doberman" Co. was disbanded and replaced by the 2nd Public Order Co. "Centurions" after the "Dobermen" key role in the last coup attempt against Noriega. Due to

4136-406: The United States. According to official Pentagon figures, 516 Panamanians were killed during the invasion, including 314 soldiers and 202 civilians; however, an internal U.S. Army memo estimated the number at 1,000. The United Nations estimated 500 civilian deaths, whereas Americas Watch estimated 300 civilian deaths. President Guillermo Endara said that "less than 600 Panamanians" died during

4230-540: The adjoining and heavily populated El Chorrillo neighborhood in Panama City . During the firefight at La Comandancia , the PDF downed two special operations helicopters and forced one MH-6 Little Bird helicopter to crash-land in the Panama Canal. The opening round of attacks in Panama City also included a special operations raid on the Carcel Modelo prison (known as Operation Acid Gambit ) to free Kurt Muse,

4324-486: The assassination of foreign leaders as suggesting that accidental killings would be acceptable foreign policy. Another ruling concluded that the Posse Comitatus Act of 1878, which prohibits the armed forces from making arrests without Congressional authorization, is effective only within the boundaries of the U.S., such that the military could be used as a police force abroad—for example, in Panama, to enforce

4418-399: The battlefield, female journalists and reporters expansively covered the invasion, providing critical information to the public and bringing international attention to the events unfolding in Panama. These perspectives and the subsequent public discussion eventually led to the shaping of the public perception of the U.S. military action. After the invasion was concluded, women in both Panama and

4512-566: The canal, the Bridge of the Americas over the canal, and the Pacific entrance to the canal. Key command and control elements of the PDF were stationed there. Furthermore, Fort Amador had a large U.S. housing district that needed to be secured to prevent the PDF from taking U.S. citizens as hostages. This position also protected the left flank of the attack on La Comandancia and the securing of

4606-520: The controversy over the number of civilian casualties should not obscure the important debate on the manner in which those people died. U.S. military casualties in the invasion were 23 killed and 325 wounded. In June 1990, the U.S. military announced that of its casualties, 2 dead and 19 wounded were victims of friendly fire . The number of Panamanian military dead was estimated at 314 by SOUTHCOM. Civilian fatalities included Kandi Helin and Ray Dragseth, two American schoolteachers working in Panama for

4700-444: The creation of a standing military force, but allowing the establishment of a special temporary military to counter acts of "external aggression." The PDF was replaced with the Panamanian Public Forces. By then, The PPF included the National Police, National Maritime Service, National Air Service, Judicial and Technical Police (PTJ) for investigatory activities, and an armed Institutional Protection Service or SPI which consist mainly on

4794-503: The drug trade prior to his February 1988 indictment, although he had met with Noriega as CIA director and had been chair of the Task Force on Drugs while Vice President . On December 15, the Panamanian general assembly passed a resolution declaring that a state of war existed between Panama and the United States. On the night following the war declaration, at approximately 9:00 p.m., four U.S. military personnel were stopped at

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4888-609: The entire invasion. Former U.S. Attorney General Ramsey Clark estimated 3,000 civilian deaths. The Roman Catholic Church estimated that 673 Panamanians were killed in total. Physicians for Human Rights said it had received "reliable reports of more than 100 civilian deaths" that were not included in the U.S. military estimate but also that there was no evidence of several thousand civilian deaths. According to The New York Times , figures estimating thousands of civilian casualties were widely rejected in Panama. Human Rights Watch 's 1991 report stated that even with these uncertainties,

4982-471: The executive the power to repel sudden attacks. According to observers, the invasion also violated the War Powers Resolution – a federal law designed to limit presidential action without Congressional authorization – because the president failed to consult with Congress regarding the invasion prior to its execution. The invasion provoked international outrage. Some countries charged that

5076-540: The face of a massive manhunt and a $ 1 million reward for his capture, he obtained refuge in the Apostolic Nunciature of the diplomatic mission of the Holy See in Panama City. However, the U.S. military's psychological warfare pressure on Noriega was relentless, reportedly with the playing of loud rock-and-roll music day and night in the densely populated area surrounding the Holy See mission. A report of

5170-491: The figures on civilian casualties are "still troublesome" because: With respect to the United States forces, our report concluded that the tactics and weapons utilized resulted in an inordinate number of civilian victims, in violation of specific obligations under the Geneva Conventions. [...][Panama's civilian deaths] reveal that the " surgical operation " by American forces inflicted a toll in civilian lives that

5264-408: The following week. A few hours after the invasion began, Guillermo Endara, who had been the "presumed winner" of the scheduled presidential election earlier in 1989, was sworn in at Fort Clayton. A platoon from the 1138th Military Police Company , Missouri Army National Guard , which was on a routine two-week rotation to Panama, was called upon to set up a detainee camp on Empire Range to handle

5358-476: The government's justifications were, according to these sources, factually groundless, and moreover, even if they had been true they would have provided inadequate support for the invasion under international law. Article 2 of the United Nations Charter , a cornerstone of international law, prohibits the use of force by member states to settle disputes except in self-defense or when authorized by

5452-686: The hospital recovering from the beating. On December 16 Bush ordered the execution of the Panama invasion plan; the military set H-Hour as 0100 on December 20. Several neighboring governments secretly tried to negotiate a peaceful outcome and Noriega's willing resignation. Presidents Oscar Arias and Daniel Oduber of Costa Rica, Carlos Andrés Pérez of Venezuela, Alfonso López Michelsen of Colombia and Spanish Prime Minister Felipe González all on different occasions met Noriega in secret attempting to convince him to give up power and self-exile himself in Spain, to no avail. The official U.S. rationale for

5546-461: The invasion and calling for withdrawal of U.S. troops, as well as a resolution condemning the violation of the diplomatic status of the Nicaraguan embassy in Panama by U.S. Special Forces who had entered the building. At the United Nations Security Council, seven nations initiated a draft resolution demanding the immediate withdrawal of U.S. forces from Panama. It was vetoed on December 23 by

5640-417: The invasion was articulated by President Bush on the morning of December 20, 1989, a few hours after the start of the operation. Bush cited Panama's declaration of a state of war with the United States and attacks on U.S. troops as justification for the invasion . Bush further identified four objectives of the invasion: U.S. forces were instructed to begin maneuvers and activities within the restrictions of

5734-411: The invasion's initiation, the speed and success of the invasion itself, and U.S. public support for it (80% public approval) did not allow Democratic lawmakers to object to Bush's decision to use military force. One contemporary study suggests that Bush decided to invade for domestic political reasons, citing scarce strategic reasoning for the U.S. to invade and immediately withdraw without establishing

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5828-460: The invasion, and like their male counterparts, both women were awarded Air Medals for their roles during the invasion. The traditional role of women in wars has also seen a transformation during the invasion. Besides being combat medics and logisticians, many women took on support roles and provided crucial support that facilitated the operational objectives. This included roles in transportation, supply chain management, and intelligence. Outside of

5922-480: The invasion. According to a CBS News poll, 92% of Panamanian adults supported the invasion, and 76% wished that U.S. forces had invaded in October during the second attempted coup. The poll was conducted in 158 randomly selected areas of the country covering about 75 percent of Panama's adult population. CBS News said the margin of sampling error was plus or minus four percentage points. Human Rights Watch described

6016-532: The mass of civilian and military detainees. This was the first National Guard unit called into active service since the Vietnam War . Operation Nifty Package was an operation launched by Navy SEALs to prevent Noriega's escape. They sank his boat and destroyed his jet, at a cost of four killed and nine wounded. Military operations continued for several weeks, mainly against PDF units. Noriega remained at large for several days, but realizing he had few options in

6110-554: The merger of the first customs and immigration agencies to subsequently merge passports. The relevant decree for the merger was published in the Official Gazette 27165 of 16 November 2012 as the first step towards that goal. This process never materialized, and all institutions were allowed to follow their path in the same way. Although not a part of the Public Forces, the new National Immigration Service reports to

6204-435: The military bases remained, and one condition of the transfer was that the canal would remain open to American shipping. The U.S. had long-standing relations with Torrijos' successor, General Manuel Noriega , who served as a U.S. intelligence asset and paid informant of the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) from 1967, including the period when George H. W. Bush was director of the agency (1976–77). Noriega had sided with

6298-401: The nature of the specific state's form of government , enforcing internal security will generally not be carried out by a country's military forces, whose primary role is external defense, except in times of extreme unrest or other state of emergency , short of civil war . Often, military involvement in internal security is restricted to authorized military aid to the civil power as part of

6392-695: The organization of the state, internal security forces may have jurisdiction on national or federal levels. As the concept of internal security refers to the entity of the state and its citizens, persons who are threats to internal security may be designated as an enemy of the state or enemy of the people . Persons detained by internal security forces may either be dealt with by the normal criminal justice system, or for more serious crimes against internal security such as treason , they may face special measures such as secret trials . In times of extreme unrest, internal security actions may include measures such as internment (detention without trial). Depending on

6486-405: The plot had been financed by the United States. In May 1989, during the Panamanian national elections , an alliance of parties opposed to the Noriega regime counted results from the country's election precincts, before they were sent to the district centers. Their tally showed their candidate, Guillermo Endara , defeating Carlos Duque , candidate of a pro-Noriega coalition, by nearly 3–1. Endara

6580-433: The police, this began a process of militarization. The process sped up under José Remón , who became the Police's commandant (commanding officer) in 1947. He himself had graduated from Mexico 's military academy. He began promoting fewer enlisted men to officer rank, giving the police a more military character. After playing a role in overthrowing two presidents , Remón resigned his commission and ran for president for

6674-405: The political turmoil of the late 1980s, he formed the civilian paramilitary unit called the Dignity Battalions composed by regular sympathizers and the CODEPADI, a similar group formed by civil servants inside public institutions; both intended to bolster up forces to be used in case of foreign military action, but were mainly used as shock troops in acts of political repression. As stated before,

6768-652: The position was eventually assumed by Manuel Noriega , who restructured all of the National Guard's military and police forces under his command, into the Fuerzas de Defensa de Panamá (Panama Defense Forces). He built the PDF into a structured force, and further consolidated his political power. Under Noriega, the PDF was more a tool of political control, than a force dedicated to national defense and law enforcement. Besides consolidating his grasp on power by increasing military forces and spending, Noriega also increased

6862-591: The power and influence of the PDF Military Intelligence Section (G-2 for its standard military designation), which he commanded prior his rise to power and it became a secret police, feared even inside the PDF ranks; and he also relied on several loyal military units, like the 7th Inf Co. "Macho de Monte" (Mountain Men, a guerrilla warfare unit named after a sort of aggressive wild boar), the 1st Public Order Co. "Doberman" (a riot police force),

6956-426: The presidency of George H. W. Bush . The primary purpose of the invasion was to depose the de facto ruler of Panama, General Manuel Noriega , who was wanted by U.S. authorities for racketeering and drug trafficking . The operation, codenamed Operation Just Cause , concluded in late January 1990 with the surrender of Noriega. The Panama Defense Forces (PDF) were dissolved, and President-elect Guillermo Endara

7050-457: The primary responsibility of a secret police force. The level of authorized force used by agencies and forces responsible for maintaining internal security might range from unarmed police to fully armed paramilitary organizations, or employ some level of less-lethal weaponry in between. For violent situations, internal security forces may contain some element of military type equipment such as non-military armored vehicles . Depending on

7144-520: The principle of civilian control of the military . Military special forces units may in some cases be put under the temporary command of civilian powers, for special internal security situations such as counter terrorism operations. United States invasion of Panama Panamanian civilians killed according to: U.S. military: 202 Americas Watch: 300 United Nations: 500 Central American Human Rights Commission: 2,000–3,000 The United States invaded Panama in mid-December 1989 during

7238-418: The process of converting the Guard into a full-fledged army. In the process, they promoted themselves to full colonels . Torrijos thrust Martínez aside in 1969, promoted himself to brigadier general , and was the de facto ruler of the country until his death in a 1981 plane crash. (See Panamanian Air Force FAP-205 crash ) After Torrijos' death, and two successive commanders with lesser political influence,

7332-482: The reaction of the civilian population to the invasion as "generally sympathetic". According to Robert Pastor , a former U.S. national security advisor, 74% of Americans polled approved of the action. Eighteen years after the invasion, Panama's National Assembly unanimously declared December 20, 2007, to be a day of national mourning. The resolution was vetoed by President Martin Torrijos . On December 19, 2019,

7426-505: The regime considered their duty to fight against foreign forces), small units, and in some cases even the Dignity Battalions presented more armed resistance. On February 10, 1990, the government of then President Guillermo Endara abolished Panama's military and reformed the security apparatus by creating the Panamanian Public Forces. In October 1994, Panama's Legislative Assembly approved a constitutional amendment prohibiting

7520-516: The separate services within the Panamanian Public Forces received varying levels of government support, the Forces writ large respected human rights. In February 2010, the new administration led by President Ricardo Martinelli proposed the Ministry of Government and Justice to be divided in two new Ministries: The Ministry of Public Security (in charge of security policies and affairs, also oversight of security forces and intelligence agencies including

7614-458: The servicemen had been unarmed, were in a private vehicle and attempted to flee only after their vehicle was surrounded by an angry crowd of civilians and PDF troops. The PDF asserted later that the Americans were armed and on a reconnaissance mission. The PDF opened fire and Paz was fatally wounded by a round that entered the rear of the vehicle and struck him in the back. Hadded, the driver of

7708-474: The situation, support the U.S.-installed government, and restore basic services was originally planned as Operation Blind Logic, but was renamed "Operation Promote Liberty" by the Pentagon on the eve of the invasion. The U.S. government invoked self-defense as a legal justification for the invasion. Several scholars and observers have opined that the invasion was illegal under international law, arguing that

7802-474: The state's citizens , or the organs and infrastructure of the state itself, and may range from petty crime , serious organized crime , political or industrial unrest, or even domestic terrorism . Foreign powers may also act as a threat to internal security, by either committing or sponsoring terrorism or rebellion , without actually declaring war . Governmental responsibility for internal security will generally rest with an interior ministry , as opposed to

7896-620: The structure to enforce the interests that Bush used to justify the invasion. The U.S. Army, Navy, Marines, Air Force and Coast Guard participated in Operation Just Cause. Ground forces consisted of: Air logistic support was provided by the 22nd Air Force with air assets from the 60th, 62nd, and 63rd military airlift wings. The U.S. invasion of Panama began on December 20, 1989, at 12:46 a.m. local time. The operation involved 27,684 U.S. troops and over 300 aircraft, including C-130 Hercules tactical transports flown by

7990-496: The unprecedented use of U.S. military women during an invasion. Approximately 600 of the 26,000 members of the U.S. forces involved in the invasion were women. Women did not serve in direct combat roles or combat arms units, but did serve as military police, truck drivers, helicopter pilots, and in other logistical roles. Captain Linda L. Bray , commander of the 988th Military Police Company of Fort Benning , Georgia , led her troops in

8084-500: The vehicle, was also wounded in the foot. Paz was rushed to Gorgas Army Hospital but died of his wounds; he received the Purple Heart posthumously. According to U.S. military sources, a U.S. Naval officer, SEAL Lieutenant Adam Curtis, and his wife, Bonnie, witnessed the incident and were detained by PDF troops. While in police custody, Curtis was beaten, and his wife threatened with sexual assault . Curtis spent two weeks in

8178-411: Was at least four-and-a-half times higher than military casualties in the enemy, and twelve or thirteen times higher than the casualties suffered by U.S. troops. By themselves, these ratios suggest that the rule of proportionality and the duty to minimize harm to civilians, where doing so would not compromise a legitimate military objective, were not faithfully observed by the invading U.S. forces. For us,

8272-579: Was called Operation Nimrod Dancer. Eventually these plans became Operation Blue Spoon, renamed Operation Just Cause by the Pentagon to sustain the perceived legitimacy of the invasion. General Colin Powell said that he liked the name because "even our severest critics would have to utter 'Just Cause' while denouncing us." Critics, however, renamed it Operation "Just 'Cuz", arguing that it had been undertaken "just [be]cause Bush felt like it." The post-invasion civil-military operation designed to stabilize

8366-403: Was created as an independent force from the National Police for the defense of the national borders. The following three years were formative for the Panamanian Public Forces. As these institutions endeavored to understand their roles within the greater Government of Panama's strategy and goals, the services struggled for funding, manning, and training to counter Panama's burgeoning threats. While

8460-462: Was indicted by federal grand juries on several drug-related charges. Negotiations seeking his resignation, which began under the presidency of Ronald Reagan , were ultimately unsuccessful. In 1989, Noriega annulled the results of the Panamanian general elections , which appeared to have been won by opposition candidate Guillermo Endara; President Bush responded by reinforcing the U.S. garrison in

8554-417: Was known to simultaneously accept significant financial support from drug dealers and facilitate the laundering of drug money. These drug dealers received protection from DEA investigations due to Noriega's special relationship with the CIA. In the mid-1980s, relations between Noriega and the U.S. began to deteriorate. In 1986, U.S. President Ronald Reagan opened negotiations with Noriega, requesting that

8648-405: Was physically assaulted by Noriega supporters the next day in his motorcade. Noriega declared the election null and maintained power by force , making him unpopular among Panamanians. Noriega's regime insisted that it had won the presidential election and that irregularities had been on the part of U.S.-backed candidates from opposition parties. President Bush called on Noriega to honor the will of

8742-466: Was sworn into office. Noriega, who had longstanding ties to United States intelligence agencies, consolidated power to become Panama's de facto dictator in the early 1980s. In the mid-1980s, relations between Noriega and the U.S. began to deteriorate due to fallout of the murder of Hugo Spadafora and the removal from office of President Nicolas Ardito Barletta . His criminal activities and association with other spy agencies came to light, and in 1988 he

8836-617: Was the first combat deployment for the AH-64, the HMMWV , and the F-117A. Panamanian radar units were jammed by two EF-111As electronic warfare aircraft of the 390th ECS, 366th TFW. These aircraft were deployed against the 16,000 members of the PDF. The operation began with an assault of strategic installations, such as the civilian Punta Paitilla Airport in Panama City and a PDF garrison and airfield at Rio Hato , where Noriega also maintained

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