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78-488: The greater part of Paphlagonia is a rugged mountainous country, but it contains fertile valleys and produces a great abundance of hazelnuts and fruit – particularly plums, cherries and pears. The mountains are clothed with dense forests, notable for the quantity of boxwood that they furnish. Hence, its coasts were occupied by Greeks from an early period. Among these, the flourishing city of Sinope , founded by colonists from Miletus in ca. 630 BC, stood pre-eminent. Amastris ,

156-416: A proscription (a kind of witch-hunt) by Sulla , an optimate in power. Forever after Caesar had to endure scurrilous optimate slander about his relationship to Nicomedes, but Bithynia became a favored project of the populares. The Populares held both consulships at Rome. Marcus Aurelius Cotta , a maternal uncle of Julius Caesar, was sent to secure the province as governor. Mithridates VI of Pontus , seeing

234-509: A Greek sea-coast." Several formulae generally shaped the solemn and sacred occasions when a new colony set forth. If a Greek city decided to send out a colony, the citizenry almost invariably consulted an oracle , such as the Oracle of Delphi , beforehand. Sometimes certain classes of citizens were called upon to take part in the enterprises; sometimes one son was chosen by lot from every house where there were several sons; and strangers expressing

312-697: A coastal strip of hilly country containing tracts of intensely fertile, arable land, in a mild and moist climate, on the southern shore of the Black Sea from the Bosphorus to approximately the city of Trabzon . Just to the south of the coastal strip was an east-west striking range, the Pontic Mountains , isolating the coast from the Central Anatolia Region , a temperate plateau of grasslands and low forests. The province extended up

390-517: A contemporary brewery belonging to a Bronze Age Egyptian settlement has been found in Tel Aviv . Shipbuilding was known to the ancient Egyptians as early as 3000 BC, and perhaps earlier. The Archaeological Institute of America reports that the earliest dated ship — dating to 3000 BC – may have possibly belonged to the Pharaoh Aha . The Phoenicians were the major trading power in

468-457: A copy of the Roman, electing from their own body their Senate and other officers of State. To this constitution the original inhabitants had to submit. The coloniae civium Romanorum retained Roman citizenship , and were free from military service, their position as outposts being regarded as an equivalent. The members of the coloniae Latinae served among the socii , the allies, and possessed

546-481: A desire to join were admitted. A person of distinction was selected to guide the emigrants and to make the necessary arrangements. It was usual to honor these founders as heroes after their death. Some of the sacred fire was taken from the public hearth in the Prytaneum , from which the fire on the public hearth of the new city was kindled. Just as each individual had his private shrines, so the new community maintained

624-761: A few miles east of the Parthenius river, became important under the rule of the Macedonian monarchs; while Amisus , a colony of Sinope situated a short distance east of the Halys river (and therefore not strictly in Paphlagonia as defined by Strabo), grew to become almost a rival of its parent city. The most considerable towns of the interior were Gangra – in ancient times the capital of the Paphlagonian kings, afterwards called Germanicopolis , situated near

702-410: A foreign enemy. Sometimes colonies formed as a result of civil disorder , where the losers in internecine battles left to form a new city elsewhere; sometimes they would form to relieve population pressure and thereby to avoid internal unrest; and also, as a result of ostracism . In most cases, however, colony founders aimed to establish trade relations with foreign countries and to further the wealth of

780-613: A group of Paphlagonians, called the Enetoi in Greek, were expelled from their homeland during a revolution. With a group of defeated Trojans under the leadership of the Trojan prince Antenor, they emigrated to the northern end of the Adriatic coast and later merged with indigenous Euganei , giving the name Venetia to the area they settled. Paphlagonians were mentioned by Herodotus among

858-624: A major source on Roman provincial administration. The cities of Bithynia took on many features of Roman cities (e.g. councils of decuriones ) in the Imperial period, to a much greater degree than the rest of Roman Asia Minor. According to Cassius Dio , around AD 134 the Senate ceded control of Bithynia and Pontus to the Emperor in return for Lycia et Pamphylia . Under the administrative reforms of emperor Diocletian , c.295, Bithynia et Pontus

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936-587: A means of providing for the poorest class of the Roman Plebs . After the time of Sulla it was adopted as a way of granting land to veteran soldiers. The right of founding colonies passed into the hands of the Roman emperors during the Principate , who used it mainly in the provinces for the exclusive purpose of establishing military settlements, partly with the old idea of securing conquered territory . It

1014-492: A means to clearly demarcate a border between his realm and that of his political rival Sun Quan . Bithynia et Pontus Bithynia and Pontus ( Latin : Provincia Bithynia et Pontus , Ancient Greek Ancient Greek : Επαρχία Βιθυνίας και Πόντου , romanized :  Eparkhía Bithynías kai Póntou ) was the name of a province of the Roman Empire on the Black Sea coast of Anatolia (modern-day Turkey). It

1092-444: A prospective addition to his kingdom about to escape, attacked Bithynia even before the consul arrived. Cotta sent for his co-consul, Lucius Licinius Lucullus . The Third Mithridatic War ensued and dragged on. At the end of their consulships the two commanders stayed on as proconsuls. Mithridates was able to mobilize almost all the rest of Anatolia against them. The two populares were insufficiently skilled to take on Mithridates. Cotta

1170-625: A province of its own. It was simply added to its former competitor, Bithynia, while its name was tacked on at the end of Bithynia. This was not a marriage of different cultures. The coast of the Black Sea had long been Hellenized, despite differences of ancestral populations. The new province began in 63 BC. It was of storied wealth and importance to the Republic. Pompey went on to be in the First Triumvirate with his fellow Populares. It

1248-637: A separate province in the 5th century AD ( Hierocles , Synecdemus c. 33). In the 7th century it became part of the theme of Opsikion , and later of the Bucellarian Theme , before being split off c. 820 to form a separate province once again. Under the Byzantine Empire, Greeks often disparaged Paphlagonians as crooks, particularly in the 10th to 12th centuries. During this period, the high profile of Paphlagonians in positions of power, such as court eunuchs, often attracted backlash from

1326-569: A sign that they claimed descent from the chieftain of that name who figures in the Iliad as leader of the Paphlagonians. At a later period, Paphlagonia passed under the control of the Macedonian kings, and after the death of Alexander the Great , it was assigned, together with Cappadocia and Mysia , to Eumenes . However, it continued to be governed by native princes until it was absorbed by

1404-590: A third culture which are today known as the Habesha people . Egyptian settlement and colonisation is attested from about 3200 BC onward, all over the area of southern Canaan , by almost every type of artifact: architecture (fortifications, embankments and buildings), pottery, vessels, tools, weapons, seals, etc. Narmer had Egyptian pottery produced in Canaan and exported back to Egypt , from regions such as Arad , En Besor , Rafiah , and Tel Erani . Recently,

1482-428: Is Pontus proper. Those from Georgia, northeastern Anatolia, and the ones who lived in present-day Armenia are often referred to as 'Eastern Pontic Greeks ' or Caucasus Greeks. Many Greek-founded colonies are well known cities to this day. Sinope and Trabzon (Greek: Τραπεζοῦς Trapezous ), were founded by Milesian traders (756 BC) as well as Samsun , Rize and Amasra . Greek was the lingua franca of Anatolia from

1560-683: Is said to have founded the first colony) and the shores of Anatolia . In addition, Greeks were settled in Ionia and Pontus . Miletus in Ionia was an ancient Greek city on the west coast of Anatolia, near the mouth of the Meander River . In the late Bronze Age (13th century BC), Miletus saw the arrival of the Carians , Luwian speakers from south central Anatolia. Later in that century, other Greeks arrived. The city at that time rebelled against

1638-536: The Crimea in the Black Sea . The settlements they established there included the city of Chersonesos (modern Sevastopol ). Another area with significant Greek colonies was the coast of ancient Illyria on the Adriatic Sea (e.g. Aspalathos, modern Split, Croatia ). Cicero remarks on the extensive Greek colonization, noting that "Indeed it seems as if the lands of the barbarians had been bordered round with

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1716-735: The Eastern Han general Ma Yuan sent Han Chinese to the northeastern frontier and settled defeated Qiang tribes within Han China's Tianshui Commandery and Longxi Commandery . Ma pursued a similar policy in the south when he defeated the Trưng Sisters of Jiaozhi , in what is now modern northern Vietnam , resettling hundreds of Vietnamese into China's Jing Province in 43 AD, seizing their sacred bronze drums as rival symbols of royal power, and reinstating Han authority and laws over Jiaozhi. Historian Rafe de Crespigny remarks that this

1794-683: The Han conquest of Nanyue in 111 BC, bringing areas of Guangdong , Guangxi , Hainan Island , and northern Vietnam under Han rule, and by 108 BC completed the Han conquest of Gojoseon in what is now North Korea . Han Chinese colonists in the Xuantu and Lelang commanderies of northern Korea dealt with occasional raids by the Goguryeo and Buyeo kingdoms, but conducted largely peaceful trade relations with surrounding Korean peoples who in turn became heavily influenced by Chinese culture . In 37 AD

1872-509: The Hittite Empire . After the fall of that empire, the city was destroyed in the 12th century BC and starting about 1000 BC was resettled extensively by Ionians. Before the invasion from Persia in the middle of the 6th century BC, Miletus was considered the greatest and wealthiest Greek polis . Over several centuries, numerous ancient Greek city-states were established on the coasts of Anatolia. Greeks began Western philosophy on

1950-582: The Iberian Peninsula in the west, Magna Graecia (southern Italy) and several colonies on the Libyan coast of northern Africa . Greeks founded two similar types of colony, the apoikía (ἀποικία from ἀπό apó “away from” + οἶκος oîkos “home”, pl. ἀποικίαι apoikiai ), an independent city-state, and the emporion (ἐμπόριov, pl. ἐμπόρια emporia ), a trading colony. Greek city-states began to establish colonies between 900 and 800 BC;

2028-707: The Kingdom of Galatia under the Roman client king Deiotarus as a reward for his loyalty to Rome. Bithynia and Pontus became an important player during the Roman Republican civil wars . When Julius Caesar crossed the Rubicon River in 49 BC and started his civil war , many of members of the Roman Senate under the leadership of Pompey fled to the East. The Galatian client king Deiotarus , ruler of

2106-676: The Mediterranean in the early part of the first millennium BC . They had trading contacts in Egypt and Greece , and established colonies as far west as modern Spain , at Gadir (modern Cádiz ), and modern Morocco , at Tingis and Mogador . From Spain and Morocco, the Phoenicians controlled access to the Atlantic Ocean and the trade routes to Britain and Senegal . The most famous and successful of Phoenician colonies

2184-644: The Pompeu Fabra University , Barcelona: The earliest presence of Phoenician material in the West is documented within the precinct of the ancient city of Huelva , Spain... The high proportion of Phoenician pottery among the new material found in 1997 in the Plaza de las Monjas in Huelva argues in favour, not of a few first sporadic contacts in the zone, but of a regular presence of Phoenician people from

2262-757: The list of ancient Greek theatres in Anatolia is one of the longest among all places the Greeks settled. Greeks traditionally lived in the region of Pontus , on the south shores of the Black Sea and in the Pontic Alps in northeastern Anatolia , the province of Kars in Caucasus, and also in Georgia. Those from southern Russia, Ukraine, and Crimea are often referred to as 'Northern Pontic Greeks ', in contrast to those from 'South Pontus', which strictly speaking

2340-599: The rump state of eastern Pontus ( Lesser Armenia ), sided with his old patron Pompey against Caesar. However, following Pompey's defeated at the Battle of Pharsulus and subsequent death in 48 BC, Deiotarus faced execution by Caesar's forces until the Roman orator Marcus Tullius Cicero pleaded his case and secured his pardon from Caesar. Caesar subsequently named Gnaeus Domitius Calvinus as his chief lieutenant in Asia Minor while Caesar traveled to Ptolemaic Egypt . With

2418-656: The Caesar in Egypt, Pharnaces II , the Roman client king of the Bosporan Kingdom and the youngest son of Mithridates VI , seized the opportunity and conquered Colchis and Lesser Armenia . The rulers of Cappadocia and Galatia , Ariobarzanes III and Deiotarus respectively, appealed to Calvinus for protection and soon the Roman forces sought battle with Pharnaces II. They met at the Battle of Nicopolis in eastern Anatolia in 48 BC, where Pharnaces II soundly defeated

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2496-1115: The Eastern Han Empire came into conflict with the Jushi Kingdom , the Shanshan and their Xiongnu allies located around the Taklamakan Desert in the Western Regions . In 127 AD Ban Yong was able to defeat the Karasahr in battle and colonies were established all the way to Turfan , but by the 150s AD the Han presence in the Western Regions began to wane. Towards the end of the Han dynasty , chancellor Cao Cao established agricultural military colonies for settling wartime refugees. Cao Cao also established military colonies in Anhui province in 209 AD as

2574-460: The Eastern provinces (including Bithynia and Pontus) went to Egypt's aid against Octavian. Octavian's victory over Antony at the Battle of Actium in 31 BC ensured Octavian's position as undisputed master of the Roman world. In 27 BC, Octavian became "Augustus": the first Roman Emperor . In 39 BC, Antony stripped control of Lesser Armenia (the remnants of the former Kingdom of Pontus ) from

2652-479: The Emperor (as supreme commander of the army) had the right to appoint the governors of those provinces. Senatorial provinces, conversely, were centered along the Mediterranean Sea and did not possess any significant military force; the province of Bithynia and Pontus, being located along the southern Black Sea coast, was an exception although it too lacked any significant garrison. Augustus allowed

2730-782: The Pontic king and reassessing Roman dominance over Asia Minor. Upon his return to the Bosporan Kingdom, Pharnaces II was assassinated by his son-in-law Asander . In return, Caesar named Asander as the kingdom's new Roman client king. Caesar then incorporated Lesser Armenia into the Roman client kingdom of Cappadocia to serve as a buffer between Rome's interests in Asia Minor against future aggression from Eastern kingdoms. In 45 BC, Caesar, now dictator of Rome , appointed Quintus Marcius Crispus as governor of Bithynia and Pontus. Following Caesar's assassination on March 15, 44 BC, by

2808-470: The Republic's eastern provinces. The Second Triumvirate expired in 33 BC, ending Antony's legal right to govern the Eastern half of the Republic. With the Triumvirate lapsed, the struggle for dominance between Antony and Octavian intensified. As Octavian built up his support in the West, Antony drew ever closer to Egyptian Queen Cleopatra . When Octavian declared war on Egypt , Antony, supported by

2886-542: The Roman army and overran much of Cappadocia, Pontus, and Bithynia. After defeating the Ptolemaic forces at the Battle of the Nile , Caesar left Egypt in 47 BC and travelled through Syria, Cilicia, and Cappadocia to face Pharnaces II. As Pharnaces II gained word of Caesar's approach with his veteran army, he sent envoys to seek a peace, which Caesar refused. Caesar met Pharnaces II at the Battle of Zela , decisively defeating

2964-632: The Senate to appoint the governors of these provinces as it had done with all provinces under the Republican system: a sortition was used to select a proconsul who would have imperium over the territory, and be assisted by a legatus or a lieutenant governor, and quaestor who handled financial issues. The Roman writer Pliny the Younger was governor of the province in AD 110-113. His Epistulae ("Letters") to emperor Trajan (ruled 98-117) are

3042-549: The ancient Phoenicians , Carthage , Rome , Alexander the Great and his successors remained tied to their metropolis, though Greek colonies of the Archaic and Classical eras were sovereign and self-governing from their inception. While Greek colonies were often founded to solve social unrest in the mother-city by expelling a part of the population, Hellenistic , Roman , Carthaginian , and Han Chinese colonies were used for trade, expansion and empire-building . One of

3120-404: The arrangement of the affairs of the colony, and also some special enactments. A colony would usually adopt the constitution of the mother-city, but the new city remained politically independent. The "holy fire" of the metropolis was preserved in a special place to remind people of the common ties. If the colony sent out a fresh colony on its own account, the mother-city was generally consulted, or

3198-506: The cities of Cyrenaica (modern-day Libya). The relation between colony and mother-city ( metropolis ) was viewed as one of mutual affection. Differences were resolved peacefully whenever possible, war being seen as a last resort. (Note though that the Peloponnesian War of 431–404 BC broke out partly due to a dispute between Corinth and her colony Corcyra .) The charter of foundation contained general provisions for

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3276-442: The coastal districts of Paphlagonia, along with the greater part of Pontus, with the Roman province of Bithynia et Pontus , but left the interior of the country under the native princes, until the dynasty became extinct and the whole country was incorporated into the Roman Empire . The name was still retained by geographers, though its boundaries are not distinctly defined by the geographer Claudius Ptolemy . Paphlagonia reappeared as

3354-424: The colonists and founding the settlement was entrusted to a commission usually consisting of three members. These men continued to stand in the relation of patrons ( patroni ) to the colony after its foundation. The colonists entered the conquered city in military array, preceded by banners, and the foundation was celebrated with special solemnities. The coloniae were free from taxes, and had their own constitution ,

3432-575: The conquests of Alexander the Great up to the invasion of the Seljuk Turks in the eleventh century AD. During the Ptolemaic rule of Judea, large-scale Jewish settlement in Egypt commenced. The Ptolemies brought in Jewish soldiers along with their families, while other Jews migrated from Judea to Egypt likely for economic opportunities. Additionally, the Ptolemies established Jewish colonies in

3510-1330: The economic and political dynamics produced by the competition between the frequently leaderless Greek city-states – newly introduced as a concept and striving to expand their spheres of economic influence – better fits as their true incentive. By means of this Greek expansion, the use of coins flourished throughout the Mediterranean Basin . Influential Greek colonies in the western Mediterranean – many in present-day southern Italy — included Cyme ; Rhegion by Chalcis and Zancle (c. 8th century); Syracuse by Corinth and Tenea (c.  734 BC ); Naxos by Chalcis (c. 734 BC); Massalia (Marseille, c.  598 BC ) and Agathe , shortly after Massalia, by Phocaea ; Hyele in Italy and Emporion in Spain by Phocaea and Massalia (c.  540 BC and early 6th century); Antipolis in France by Achaea ; Alalia in Corsica by Phocaea and Massalia (c. 545 BC) and Cyrene ( Cyrenaica , Libya) by Thera (762/61 and 632/31 BC). The Greeks also colonised

3588-415: The encroaching power of Pontus . The rulers of that dynasty became masters of the greater part of Paphlagonia as early as the reign of Mithridates Ctistes (302–266 BC), but it was not until 183 BC that Pharnaces reduced the Greek city of Sinope under their control. From that time, the whole province was incorporated into the kingdom of Pontus until the fall of Mithridates (65 BC). Pompey united

3666-453: The first two were Al Mina on the Syrian coast and the Greek emporium Pithecusae at Ischia in the Bay of Naples , both established about 800 BC by Euboeans . Two new waves of colonists set out from Greece between the Dark Ages and the start of the Archaic Period – the first in the early 8th century BC and the second in the 6th century. Population growth and cramped conditions at home seem an insufficient explanation, while

3744-406: The frontier of Galatia – and Pompeiopolis , in the valley of the Amnias river, near extensive mines of the mineral called by Strabo sandarake (red arsenic or arsenic sulfide), largely exported from Sinope . In the time of the Hittites , Paphlagonia was inhabited by the Kashka people, whose exact ethnic relation to the Paphlagonians is uncertain. It seems perhaps that they were related to

3822-429: The influence of Julius Caesar , then a young man and a guest-friend of Nicomedes, and an impassioned speech by the deceased king's sister Nysa before the Senate, the gift was accepted. Contemporary Rome was divided into two parties, the Populares , party of the "people," and the Optimates , party of the "best." The guest-friendship had been offered to Caesar, a popular, to save his life by keeping him from Rome during

3900-441: The kingdom as a province directly governed by the Republic. The Romans were not actually able to put that annexation into practice until 64 BC, when Pompey officially annexed Bithynia and the western half of Pontus (including the Greek cities along the Black Sea ) into the Republic as the directly governed province of "Bithynia et Pontus". As for the eastern half of Pontus (" Lesser Armenia "), Pompey added its territory to that of

3978-471: The members of the Roman Senate, Marcus Junius Brutus and Gaius Cassius Longinus fled from Italy and assumed command of the Republic's eastern provinces, including Bithynia and Pontus, in 43 BC. When Crispus refused to serve the assassin of his patron, Cassius had him removed from office and forced into retirement. Following the defeat of Brutus and Cassius by the Second Triumvirate at the Battle of Philippi in 42 BC, Triumvir Mark Antony assumed command of

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4056-430: The members retaining the right of domicile in their own homeland and confining themselves to their own quarter in the foreign city. It was an old custom in ancient Italy to send out colonies for the purpose of securing new conquests. The Romans , having no standing army , used to plant bodies of their own citizens in conquered towns as a kind of garrison. These bodies would consist partly of Roman citizens , usually to

4134-408: The metropolis. Colonies were established in Ionia and Thrace as early as the 8th century BC. More than thirty Greek city-states had multiple colonies, dotted all across the Mediterranean world. From the late 9th to the 5th century BC, the most active colony-founding city, Miletus of the Ionian League , spawned more than 60 colonies encompassing the shores of the Black Sea in the east,

4212-462: The next year in 36 BC, Antony appointed Polemon I as client king of Pontus. Years later, in 16 BC, Polemon I, at the request of Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa and with the approval of Roman Emperor Augustus , married Queen Dynamis of the Bosporan Kingdom , becoming ruler of that realm in addition to Pontus and Cilicia. Polemone I would later add Colchis to his realm of client kingdoms he ruled on behalf of Rome. Following Polemon I's death in 8 BC, he

4290-432: The nomadic Mongolic Xiongnu ruler Hunye (渾邪) was defeated by Huo Qubing in 121 BC, settlers from various regions of China under the rule of Emperor Wu of Han colonized the Hexi Corridor and Ordos Plateau . Tuntian , self-sustaining agricultural military garrisons, were established in frontier outposts to secure the massive territorial gains and Silk Road trade routes leading into Central Asia. Emperor Wu oversaw

4368-488: The number of three hundred and partly of members of the Latin League in larger numbers. One third of the conquered territory was taken for the settlers. The coloniae civium Romanorum (colonies of Roman citizens) were specially intended to secure the two coasts of Italy, and were hence called coloniae maritimae . The far more numerous coloniae Latinae served the same purpose for the mainland, but they were also inhabited by Latins and much more populated. The duty of leading

4446-405: The oldest colonisation process in history occurred around 1000 BC, the Sabeans of southern Arabia, with a civilization based on agriculture, began to colonize the highlands of northern Ethiopia and Eritrea . The indigenous peoples with whom the Sabaeans came into contact were the ancestors of the contemporary Agaw people . The fusion of southern Arabian culture and Agaw culture resulted in

4524-499: The people of the adjoining country, Cappadocia , who were speakers of one of the Anatolian branch of the Indo-European languages . Their language would appear, from Strabo's testimony, to have been distinctive. The Paphlagonians were one of the most ancient nations of Anatolia and were listed among the allies of the Trojans in the Trojan War (ca. 1200 BC or 1250 BC), where their king Pylaemenes and his son Harpalion perished ( Iliad , ii. 851–857). According to Homer and Livy ,

4602-400: The peoples conquered by Croesus , and they sent an important contingent to the army of Xerxes in 480 BC. Xenophon speaks of them as being governed by a prince of their own, without any reference to the neighboring satraps , a freedom perhaps due to the nature of their country, with its lofty mountain ranges and difficult passes. All these rulers appear to have borne the name Pylaimenes as

4680-463: The rest of society. 41°30′N 33°30′E  /  41.5°N 33.5°E  / 41.5; 33.5 Colonies in antiquity#Greek colonies Colonies in antiquity were post- Iron Age city-states founded from a mother-city or metropolis rather than a territory-at-large. Bonds between a colony and its metropolis often remained close, and took specific forms during the period of classical antiquity . Generally, colonies founded by

4758-461: The rulership of the Cappadocian king Ariarathes X of Cappadocia and made Darius of Pontus , son of Pharnaces II of Pontus , the Roman client king of Pontus. Antony also granted to Darius the rulership of the Roman client kingdom of Cilicia . His reign lasted until his death in 37 BC, after which Antony appointed Polemon I of Pontus as client king of Cilicia and Arsaces of Pontus as client king of Lesser Armenia. Following Arsaces' untimely death

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4836-455: The slopes to the ridge. On its reverse side were valleys and plateaus in which were situated cities that were on the edge of the coastal province but were not part of it. The Kingdom of Bithynia became a Roman ally around 149 BC. In 74 BC, during the Third Mithridatic War , King Nicomedes IV of Bithynia died and, hoping to secure his kingdom from further Pontic aggression, bequeathed his kingdom to Rome. The Senate immediately voted to annex

4914-409: The so-called ius Latinum or Latinitas. This secured to them the right of acquiring property, the concept of commercium , and the right of settlement in Rome, and under certain conditions the power of becoming Roman citizens; though in course of time these rights underwent many limitations. From the time of the Gracchi the colonies lost their military character. Colonization came to be regarded as

4992-399: The start of the ninth century BC. The recent radiocarbon dates from the earliest levels in Carthage situate the founding of this Tyrian colony in the years 835–800 cal BC, which coincides with the dates handed down by Flavius Josephus and Timeus for the founding of the city. In Ancient Greece , a defeated people would sometimes found a colony, leaving their homes to escape the subjugation of

5070-429: The subsequent transformation of Cappadocia into a directly governed province in 18 AD, Pythodorida lost her title as queen of Cappadocia. Pythodorida was succeeded by her stepson Polemon II of Pontus following her death in 38 AD. Polemon II ruled as a Roman client king over Pontus and Cilicia until the Roman Emperor Nero deposed him in 62 AD. Cilicia was then annexed into a directly governed Roman province and Pontus

5148-410: The western coast of Anatolia ( Pre-Socratic philosophy ). Thales , Anaximander , Anaximenes and Diogenes of Apollonia were among the renowned philosophers of the Milesian school . Heraclitus lived in Ephesus another ancient Greek city and Anaxagoras was from Clazomenae , a member of the Ionian League . All the Ancient Greek dialects were spoken in Anatolia in the various city states and

5226-407: The worship of its chief domestic deities, the colony sending embassies and votive gifts to the mother-city's principal festivals for centuries afterwards. After the conquests of Macedonia and Alexander the Great , a further number of Hellenistic colonies were founded, ranging from Egypt to India. By the 15th century BC, the Mycenaeans had reached Rhodes , Crete and Cyprus ( where Teucer

5304-421: Was a "brief but effective campaign of colonisation and control", before the general returned north in 44 AD. Cao Song, an Eastern Han administrator of Dunhuang , had military colonies established in what is now Yiwu County near Hami in 119 AD. However, Empress Deng Sui , regent for the young Emperor Shang of Han , pursued a slow, cautious policy of settlement on the advice of Ban Yong, son of Ban Chao , as

5382-549: Was at least asked to furnish a leader. Frequently the colonies, declaring their commitment to the various metropolitic alliances formed in the Greek mainland and for religious reasons, would pay tribute in religious centres such as Delphi, Olympia , or Delos . The cleruchs (κληροῦχοι, klêrouchoi ) formed a special class of Greek colonists, each being assigned an individual plot of land (κλῆρος, klêros ). The trade factories set up in foreign countries, such as Naucratis in Egypt, were somewhat different from ordinary colonies, with

5460-435: Was divided into 3 smaller provinces: Bithynia , Honorias and Paphlagonia (replaced by the Theme of Paphlagonia around 820). These belonged to the diocese of Pontica (established c. 314), in turn part of the Prefecture of the East (established c. 337). Following the Muslim invasions of the 640s AD, the Byzantine Empire reorganized its provincial structure into themes . The province of Bithynia and Pontus

5538-411: Was formed during the late Roman Republic by the amalgamation of the former kingdoms of Bithynia (made a province by Rome 74 BC) and Pontus (annexed to Bithynia 63 BC). The amalgamation was part of a wider conquest of Anatolia and its reduction to Roman provinces. In 74 BC, Nicomedes IV of Bithynia willed his kingdom to the Romans, whom he hoped would defend it against its old enemy, Pontus. Due to

5616-465: Was founded by settlers from Tyre in 814–813 BC and called Kart-Hadasht ( Qart-ḥadašt , literally "New Town" ), known in English as Carthage . The Carthaginians later founded their own colonies in the western Mediterranean, notably a colony in southeast Spain, Carthago Nova , which was eventually conquered by their enemy, Rome . According to María Eugenia Aubet , Professor of Archaeology at

5694-562: Was only in exceptional cases that the provincial colonies enjoyed the immunity from taxation which was granted to those in Italy. Imperial China during the Han dynasty (202 BC–220 AD) extended its rule over what is now much of China proper as well as Inner Mongolia , northern Vietnam , northern Korea , the Hexi Corridor of Gansu , and the Tarim Basin region of Xinjiang on the easternmost fringes of Central Asia. After

5772-665: Was re-incorporated in Cappadocia, then a directly governed Roman province. As part of the Constitutional Reforms of Augustus , which transformed the Roman Republic into the Roman Empire , Rome's territories were divided into imperial provinces and senatorial provinces . Imperial provinces were border lands which required a permanent military presence to protect the Empire from invasion. As such, only

5850-547: Was removed finally by the Senate on a charge of corruption. Lucullus' men mutinied. In the confusion he lost nearly all Anatolia and was out of it. Their patience at an end, the Senate chose the best commander they had. In 66 BC Rome passed the Lex Manilia appointing Pompey , a popular, as Summus Imperator , a term that would find more use after the Civil War. He had the full support of Caesar, then coming into his own. He

5928-401: Was succeeded by his stepson Tiberius Julius Aspurgus as client king of the Bosporan Kingdom and by his second wife Pythodorida of Pontus became client queen of Pontus, Cilicia, and Colchis. Pythodorida would marry then King Archelaus , the Roman client king of Cappadocia, in 8 BC, thereby joining the several eastern client kingdom under a single family. Following Archelaus' death in 14 AD and

6006-467: Was the peak of his career. They had a falling-out and fought the Roman Civil War . The last popular standing, Octavian Caesar, assumed the title imperator on a permanent basis and was granted another by the Senate, Augustus . Bithynia and Pontus went on from that date, 27 BC, as an imperial province, a name which it kept. The Roman province of Bithynia et Pontus ( et is Latin "and") comprised

6084-479: Was to have a totally free hand in Asia. By 64 BC all of Mithridates' allies had been defeated or forced to change sides. Driven from Pontus, hunted through Anatolia, he was assassinated at last by former friends hoping to win Roman favor. The wealth of Anatolia was now at Rome's command. It was Pompey's task to divide it into provinces . He kept the larger regions and combined the smaller city states. Pontus never became

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