56-462: Tomato purée is a thick liquid made by cooking and straining tomatoes . The difference between tomato paste , tomato purée, and tomato sauce is consistency ; tomato puree has a thicker consistency and a deeper flavour than sauce. The definitions of tomato purée vary from country to country. In the US, tomato purée is a processed food product, usually consisting of only tomatoes, but can also be found in
112-547: A case of convergent evolution ) in the cultivated tomato. The analysis predicts that var. cerasiforme appeared around 78,000 years ago, while the cultivated tomato originated around 7,000 years ago (5,000 BCE), with substantial uncertainty, making it unclear how humans may have been involved in the process. The Spanish first introduced tomatoes to Europe, where they became used in Spanish food. Elsewhere in Europe, its first use
168-602: A column surrounding the pistil 's style. The anthers bend into a cone-like structure, surrounding the stigma. The flowers are 1–2 cm (0.4–0.8 in) across, yellow, with five pointed lobes on the corolla ; they are borne in a cyme of three to twelve together. The fruit develops from the ovary of the plant after fertilization, its flesh comprising the pericarp walls. The fruit contains locules , hollow spaces full of seeds. These vary among cultivated varieties. Some smaller varieties have two locules; globe-shaped varieties typically have three to five; beefsteak tomatoes have
224-456: A great number of small locules; and plum tomatoes have very few, very small locules. For propagation, the seeds need to come from a mature fruit, and must be lightly fermented to remove the gelatinous outer coating and then dried before use. The tomato has a mutualistic relationship with arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi such as Rhizophagus irregularis . Scientists use the tomato as a model species for investigating such symbioses. Like
280-402: A lighter green, and reducing sugar in the resulting ripe fruit by 10–15%. Perhaps more importantly, the fruit chloroplasts are remodelled during ripening into chlorophyll-free chromoplasts that synthesize and accumulate the carotenoids lycopene , β-carotene , and other metabolites that are sensory and nutritional assets of the ripe fruit. The potent chloroplasts in the dark-green shoulders of
336-978: A name for the fruit. The usual pronunciations of tomato are / t ə ˈ m eɪ t oʊ / (in North American English ) and / t ə ˈ m ɑː t oʊ / (in British English ). The British pronunciation was like the American until the Great Vowel Shift . The word's dual pronunciations were immortalized in Ira and George Gershwin 's 1937 song " Let's Call the Whole Thing Off " ("You like / p ə ˈ t eɪ t oʊ / and I like / p ə ˈ t ɑː t oʊ / / You like / t ə ˈ m eɪ t oʊ / and I like / t ə ˈ m ɑː t oʊ / "). The likely wild ancestor of
392-412: A serrated margin; both the stem and leaves are densely glandular-hairy. Tomato flowers are bisexual and are able to self fertilize. As tomatoes were moved from their native areas, their traditional pollinators (probably a species of halictid bee ) did not move with them. The trait of self-fertility became an advantage, and domestic cultivars of tomato have been selected to maximize this trait. This
448-455: A staple of the peasant population because they were not as filling as other crops. Additionally, both toxic and inedible varieties discouraged many people from attempting to consume or prepare any other varieties. In certain areas of Italy, such as Florence, the fruit was used solely as a tabletop decoration, until it was incorporated into the local cuisine in the late 17th or early 18th century. The earliest discovered cookbook with tomato recipes
504-655: A strong savoury umami flavor, and is an important ingredient in cuisines around the world. It is used in pizzas , pasta sauces, soups such as gazpacho , curries including dhansak and rogan josh , as juice, and in Bloody Mary cocktails . Tomato festivals are held annually in Buñol , Spain, in Reynoldsburg, Ohio , and in Närpes , Finland. The word tomato comes from the Spanish tomate , which in turn comes from
560-462: Is tobacco mosaic virus . Handling cigarettes and other infected tobacco products can transmit the virus to tomato plants. A serious disease is curly top , carried by the beet leafhopper , which interrupts the lifecycle. As the name implies, it has the symptom of making the top leaves of the plant wrinkle up and grow abnormally. Bacterial wilt is another common disease impacting yield. Wang et al. , 2019 found phage combination therapies to reduce
616-471: Is important in tomato breeding. Its relatedness to tomatoes and ability to freely cross with them has allowed it to be used for the introduction of disease resistance traits in tomato varieties, as well as in the study of the genetic control of tomato traits such as fruit shape and size. It has higher amounts of lycopene , vitamin C , and phenolic acids , as well as a higher antioxidant capacity than Solanum lycopersicum . Its 900 Mb genome differs from
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#1732802618783672-486: Is increasing, providing fruit during those times of the year when field-grown fruit is not readily available. Smaller fruit (cherry and grape), or cluster tomatoes (fruit-on-the-vine) are the fruit of choice for the large commercial greenhouse operators while the beefsteak varieties are the choice of owner-operator growers. Tomatoes are also grown using hydroponics . To facilitate transportation and storage, tomatoes are often picked unripe (green) and ripened in storage with
728-401: Is not the same as self-pollination , despite the common claim that tomatoes do so. That tomatoes pollinate themselves poorly without outside aid is clearly shown in greenhouse situations, where pollination must be aided by artificial wind, vibration of the plants, or by cultured bumblebees . The flowers develop on the apical meristem . They have the anthers fused along the edges, forming
784-494: Is not used because it violates the International Code of Nomenclature barring the use of tautonyms in botanical nomenclature. The corrected name Lycopersicon lycopersicum (Nicolson 1974) was technically valid, because Miller's genus name and Linnaeus's species name differ in exact spelling. As Lycopersicon esculentum has become so well known, it was officially listed as a nomen conservandum in 1983, and would be
840-695: The Columbian exchange ; certainly the tomato was being grown in Europe within a few years of that event. The earliest discussion of the tomato in European literature appeared in Pietro Andrea Mattioli 's 1544 herbal . He suggested that a new type of eggplant had been brought to Italy. He stated that it was blood red or golden color when mature, and could be divided into segments and eaten like an eggplant—that is, cooked and seasoned with salt, black pepper, and oil. Ten years later Mattioli named
896-500: The Italian verb passare , meaning 'to go through'. Tomato The tomato ( US : / t ə m eɪ t oʊ / , UK : / t ə m ɑː t oʊ / ), Solanum lycopersicum , is a plant whose fruit is an edible berry that is eaten as a vegetable. The tomato is a member of the nightshade family that includes tobacco , potato , and chili peppers . It originated from and was domesticated in western South America . It
952-473: The Nahuatl word tomatl [ˈtomat͡ɬ] pronunciation . The specific name lycopersicum , meaning "wolf peach", originated with Galen , who used it to denote a plant that has never been identified. Luigi Anguillara speculated in the 16th century that Galen's lycopersicum might be the tomato, and despite the impossibility of this identification, lycopersicum entered scientific use as
1008-628: The currant tomato or pimp , is a wild species of tomato native to Ecuador and Peru but naturalized elsewhere, such as the Galápagos Islands . Its small fruits are edible, and it is commonly grown in gardens as an heirloom tomato, although it is considered to be wild rather than domesticated as is the commonly cultivated tomato species Solanum lycopersicum . Its genome was sequenced in 2012. It will hybridize with common domestic tomatoes. There are annual , biennial , and perennial varieties. Solanum pimpinellifolium
1064-654: The potato , tomatoes belong to the genus Solanum , which is a member of the nightshade family, the Solanaceae . That is a diverse family of flowering plants, often poisonous, that includes the mandrake ( Mandragora ), deadly nightshade ( Atropa ), and tobacco ( Nicotiana ), as shown in the outline phylogenetic tree (many branches omitted). many garden flowers and other species Nicotiana (tobacco) Atropa (nightshades) Mandragora (mandrake) (sweet and bell peppers) S. lycopersicum (tomato) S. tuberosum (potato) In 1753, Linnaeus placed
1120-412: The tomato bug , stink bugs , cutworms , tomato hornworms and tobacco hornworms , aphids , cabbage loopers , whiteflies , tomato fruitworms , flea beetles , red spider mite , slugs , and Colorado potato beetles . The tomato russet mite , Aculops lycopersici , feeds on foliage and young fruit of tomato plants, causing shrivelling and necrosis of leaves, flowers, and fruit, possibly killing
1176-697: The "U" phenotype are beneficial here, but have the disadvantage of leaving green shoulders near the stems of the ripe fruit, and even cracked yellow shoulders. This is apparently because of oxidative stress due to overload of the photosynthetic chain in direct sunlight at high temperatures. Hence, genetic design of a commercial variety that combines the advantages of types "u" and "U" requires fine tuning, but may be feasible. Breeders strive to produce tomato plants with improved yield, shelf life, size, and resistance to environmental pressures, including disease. These efforts have yielded unintended negative consequences on various fruit attributes. For instance, linkage drag ,
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#17328026187831232-523: The 1540s. It was probably eaten shortly after it was introduced, and was certainly being used as food by the early 17th century in Spain, as documented in the 1618 play La octava maravilla by Lope de Vega with "lovelier than ... a tomato in season". The tomato was introduced to China, likely via the Philippines or Macau, in the 16th century. It was given the name 番茄 fānqié (foreign eggplant), as
1288-619: The Chinese named many foodstuffs introduced from abroad, but referring specifically to early introductions. In 1548, when the house steward of Cosimo de' Medici , the grand duke of Tuscany , wrote to the Medici private secretary informing him that the basket of tomatoes sent from the grand duke's Florentine estate at Torre del Gallo "had arrived safely". Tomatoes were grown mainly as ornamentals early on after their arrival in Italy. For example,
1344-499: The Florentine aristocrat Giovanvettorio Soderini wrote how they "were to be sought only for their beauty", and were grown only in gardens or flower beds. The tomato's ability to mutate and create new and different varieties helped contribute to its success and spread throughout Italy. However, in areas where the climate supported growing tomatoes, their habit of growing close to the ground suggested low status. They were not adopted as
1400-452: The biochemistry (many of the alkaloids common to other Solanum species are conspicuously absent from the tomato). On the other hand, hybrids of tomato and diploid potato can be created in the lab by somatic fusion , and are partially fertile, providing evidence of the close relationship between these species. An international consortium of researchers from 10 countries began sequencing the tomato genome in 2004. A prerelease version of
1456-415: The brightest red to the deepest yellow. Sahagún mentioned Aztecs cooking various sauces, some with tomatoes of different sizes, serving them in city markets: "foods sauces, hot sauces; ... with tomatoes, ... sauce of large tomatoes, sauce of ordinary tomatoes, ..." The Spanish conquistador Hernán Cortés 's capture of Tenochtitlan in 1521 initiated the widespread cultural and biological interchange called
1512-475: The correct name for the tomato in classifications which do not place the tomato in the genus Solanum . Genetic evidence shows that Linnaeus was correct to put the tomato in the genus Solanum , making S. lycopersicum the correct name. Both names, however, will probably be found in the literature for some time. Two of the major reasons for considering the genera separate are the leaf structure (tomato leaves are markedly different from any other Solanum ), and
1568-440: The culinary use of the tomato included Michele Felice Cornè and Robert Gibbon Johnson . Many Americans considered tomatoes to be poisonous at this time and, in general, they were grown more as ornamental plants than as food. In 1897, W. H. Garrison stated, "The belief was once transmitted that the tomato was sinisterly dangerous." He recalled in his youth tomatoes were dubbed "love-apples or wolf-apples" and shunned as "globes of
1624-502: The devil". When Alexander W. Livingston (1821–1898) began developing the tomato as a commercial crop, his aim had been to grow tomatoes smooth in contour, uniform in size, and sweet in flavor. He eventually developed over seventeen varieties. The U.S. Department of Agriculture's 1937 yearbook declared that "half of the major varieties were a result of the abilities of the Livingstons to evaluate and perpetuate superior material in
1680-525: The direct ancestor of some modern cultivated tomatoes. The Aztecs raised several varieties of tomato, with red tomatoes called xitomatl and green tomatoes (physalis) called tomatl ( tomatillo ). Bernardino de Sahagún reported seeing a great variety of tomatoes in the Aztec market at Tenochtitlán (Mexico City): "large tomatoes, small tomatoes, leaf tomatoes, sweet tomatoes, large serpent tomatoes, nipple-shaped tomatoes", and tomatoes of all colors from
1736-431: The early blight pathogen Alternaria solani . However, this tactic has limitations, since selection for traits such as pathogen resistance can negatively impact other favorable traits such as fruit production. The tomato is grown worldwide for its edible fruits , with thousands of cultivars . Greenhouse tomato production in large-acreage commercial greenhouses and owner-operator stand-alone or multiple-bay greenhouses
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1792-625: The fresh market and for canning and processing. The University of California, Davis 's C.M. Rick Tomato Genetics Resource Center maintains a gene bank of wild relatives, monogenic mutants and genetic stocks. Research on processing tomatoes is also conducted by the California Tomato Research Institute in Escalon, California . In California, growers have used a method of cultivation called dry-farming , especially with Early Girl tomatoes. This technique encourages
1848-702: The fruits in print as pomi d'oro , or "golden apples". After the Spanish colonization of the Americas , the Spanish distributed the tomato throughout their colonies in the Caribbean . They brought it to the Philippines , from where it spread to southeast Asia and then the whole of Asia. The Spanish brought the tomato to Europe, where it grew easily in Mediterranean climates ; cultivation began in
1904-595: The genome was made available in December 2009. The complete genome for the cultivar Heinz 1706 was published on 31 May 2012 in Nature . The latest reference genome published in 2021 had 799 MB and encodes 34,384 (predicted) proteins, spread over 12 chromosomes. The first commercially available genetically modified food was a tomato called Flavr Savr , which was engineered to have a longer shelf life. It could be vine ripened without compromising shelf life . However,
1960-790: The impact of bacterial wilt, sometimes by reducing bacterial abundance and sometimes by selecting for resistant but slow growing genetics. Tomatoes, with their umami flavor, are extensively used in Mediterranean cuisine as a key ingredient in pizza and many pasta sauces. Tomatoes are used in Spanish gazpacho and Catalan pa amb tomàquet . The tomato is a crucial and ubiquitous part of Middle Eastern cuisine , served fresh in salads (e.g., Arab salad , Israeli salad , Shirazi salad and Turkish salad ), grilled with kebabs and other dishes, made into sauces, and so on. Solanum pimpinellifolium Lycopersicon pimpinellifolium (L.) Mill. Lycopersicon racemigerum Lange Solanum pimpinellifolium , commonly known as
2016-551: The introduction of an undesired trait during backcrossing , has altered the metabolism of the fruit. This trait is physically close to the desired allele along the chromosome. Breeding for traits like larger fruit has thus unintentionally altered nutritional value and flavor. Breeders have turned to wild tomato species as a source of alleles to introduce beneficial traits into modern varieties. For example, wild relatives may possess higher amounts of fruit solids (associated with greater sugar content), or resistance to diseases such as to
2072-642: The name 'Love Apple' as a French misreading of the Italian pomo dei Mori ("the Moors' apple") as pomme d'amour , ("apple of love"). The tomato was introduced to cultivation in the Middle East by John Barker , British consul in Aleppo c. 1799 to 1825 . Nineteenth century descriptions of its consumption are uniformly as an ingredient in a cooked dish. In 1881, it is described as only eaten in
2128-403: The plant hormone ethylene . At industrial scale, such as for canning, tomatoes are picked mechanically. The machine cuts the whole vine and uses sensors to separate ripe tomatoes from the rest of the plant, which is returned to the farm for use either as green manure or to be grazed by livestock . In 2022, world production of tomatoes was 186 million tonnes , with China accounting for 37% of
2184-422: The plant to send roots deep to find existing moisture. Tomato plants are vines, becoming decumbent , and can grow up to 3 m (9.8 ft); bush varieties are generally no more than 100 cm (3 ft 3 in) tall. They are tender perennials, often grown as annuals. Tomato plants are dicots . They grow as a series of branching stems, with a terminal bud at the tip that does the actual growing. When
2240-430: The plant. After an insect attack tomato plants produce systemin , a plant peptide hormone . This activates defensive mechanisms, such as the production of protease inhibitors to slow the growth of insects. The hormone was first identified in tomatoes. Tomato cultivars vary widely in their resistance to disease. Modern hybrids focus on improving disease resistance over the heirloom plants . A common tomato disease
2296-408: The product was not commercially successful, and was sold only until 1997. The poor taste and lack of sugar in modern garden and commercial tomato varieties resulted from breeding tomatoes to ripen uniformly red. This change occurred after discovery of a mutant "u" phenotype in the mid-20th century, so named because the fruits ripened uniformly. This was widely cross-bred to produce red fruit without
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2352-722: The region "within the last forty years". The earliest reference to tomatoes being grown in British North America is from 1710, when herbalist William Salmon saw them in what is today South Carolina , perhaps introduced from the Caribbean. By the mid-18th century, they were cultivated on some Carolina plantations, and probably in other parts of the Southeast. Thomas Jefferson , who ate tomatoes in Paris, sent some seeds back to America. Some early American advocates of
2408-440: The seasoned form. It differs from tomato sauce or tomato paste in consistency and content; tomato purée generally lacks the additives common to a complete tomato sauce and does not have the thickness of paste. The standard consistency of tomato puree is more than or equal to 7% but less than 24% natural total soluble solids. Passata di pomodoro is an uncooked tomato purée, strained of seeds and skins. Passata derives from
2464-590: The tip eventually stops growing, whether because of pruning or flowering, lateral buds take over and grow into new, fully functional, vines. Tomato vines are typically pubescent, meaning covered with fine short hairs. The hairs facilitate the vining process, turning into roots wherever the plant is in contact with the ground and moisture, especially if the vine's connection to its original root has been damaged or severed. The leaves are 10–25 cm (4–10 in) long, odd pinnate , with five to nine leaflets on petioles , each leaflet up to 8 cm (3 in) long, with
2520-457: The tomato at 0.6% of base pairs ; in comparison, they both differ from the potato (from which they diverged 7.3 million years ago) at 8% of bases. Considered the ancestor of domesticated tomatoes, it is valued for supplementing the limited gene pool of the domestic tomato. Due to agricultural development, the wild currant tomato is becoming less prevalent in the native range of northern Peru and southern Ecuador. In addition, seed collection
2576-518: The tomato in England. Gerard knew the tomato was eaten in Spain and Italy. Nonetheless, he believed it was poisonous. Gerard's views were influential, and the tomato was considered unfit for eating for many years in Britain and its North American colonies . By 1820, tomatoes were described as "to be seen in great abundance in all our vegetable markets" and to be "used by all our best cooks", reference
2632-411: The tomato in the genus Solanum (alongside the potato) as Solanum lycopersicum . In 1768, Philip Miller moved it to its own genus, naming it Lycopersicon esculentum . The name came into wide use, but was technically in breach of the plant naming rules because Linnaeus's species name lycopersicum still had priority. Although the name Lycopersicum lycopersicum was suggested by Karsten (1888), it
2688-588: The tomato, the red-fruited Solanum pimpinellifolium , is native to western South America, where it was probably first domesticated. The resulting domesticated plant, ancestral to the modern large-fruited tomato varieties, was probably the cherry tomato, S. lycopersicum var. cerasiforme . However, genomic analysis suggests that the domestication process may have been more complex than this. S. lycopersicon var. cerasiforme may have existed before domestication, while traits supposedly typical of domestication may have been reduced in that variety and then reselected (in
2744-773: The tomato." Livingston's first breed of tomato, the Paragon, was introduced in 1870. In 1875, he introduced the Acme, said to be in the parentage of most cultivars for the next twenty-five years. Other early breeders included Henry Tilden in Iowa and a Dr. Hand in Baltimore. Because of the tomato's need for heat and a long growing season, several states in the Sun Belt became major producers, particularly Florida and California . In California, tomatoes are grown under irrigation for both
2800-666: The total, followed by India , Turkey , and the United States as major producers (table). The world dedicated 4.8 million hectares in 2012 for tomato cultivation and the total production was about 161.8 million tonnes . The average world farm yield for tomato was 33.6 tonnes per hectare in 2012. Tomato farms in the Netherlands were the most productive in 2012, with a nationwide average of 476 tonnes per hectare, followed by Belgium (463 tonnes per hectare) and Iceland (429 tonnes per hectare). Common tomato pests include
2856-424: The typical green ring around the stem on un-crossbred varieties. Before this, most tomatoes produced more sugar during ripening, and were sweeter and more flavorful. 10–20% of the total carbon fixed in the fruit can be produced by photosynthesis in the developing fruit of the normal U phenotype. The u mutation encodes a factor that produces defective chloroplasts with lower density in developing fruit, making them
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#17328026187832912-399: The well known and highly prized San Marzano tomato grown in that region, with a European protected designation of origin certification. Tomatoes were not grown in England until the 1590s. One of the earliest cultivators was John Gerard , a barber-surgeon . Gerard's Herbal , published in 1597, and largely plagiarized from continental sources, is also one of the earliest discussions of
2968-665: Was introduced to the Old World by the Spanish in the Columbian exchange in the 16th century. Tomato plants are vines, largely annual and vulnerable to frost, though sometimes living longer in greenhouses. The flowers are able to self-fertilise. Modern varieties have been bred to ripen uniformly red, in a process that has impaired the fruit's sweetness and flavor. There are thousands of cultivars, varying in size, color, shape, and flavor. Tomatoes are attacked by many insect pests and nematodes, and are subject to diseases caused by viruses and by mildew and blight fungi. The tomato has
3024-565: Was made to their cultivation in gardens still "for the singularity of their appearance", while their use in cooking was associated with exotic Italian or Jewish cuisine. For example, in Elizabeth Blackwell 's A Curious Herbal , it is described under the name "Love Apple ( Amoris Pomum )" as being consumed with oil and vinegar in Italy, similar to consumption of cucumbers in the UK. In 1963, The New York Times gave an explanation of
3080-514: Was ornamental, not least because it was understood to be related to the nightshades and assumed to be poisonous. The exact date of domestication is unknown; by 500 BC, it was already being cultivated in southern Mexico and probably other areas. The Pueblo people believed that tomato seeds could confer powers of divination . The large, lumpy variety of tomato, a mutation from a smoother, smaller fruit, originated in Mesoamerica, and may be
3136-536: Was published in Naples in 1692, though the author had apparently obtained these recipes from Spanish sources. Varieties were developed over the following centuries for drying, for sauce, for pizzas, and for long-term storage. These varieties are usually known for their place of origin as much as by a variety name. For example, there is the Pomodorino del Piennolo del Vesuvio , the "hanging tomato of Vesuvius", and
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