Quercetin is a plant flavonol from the flavonoid group of polyphenols . It is found in many fruits, vegetables, leaves, seeds, and grains; capers, red onions, and kale are common foods containing appreciable amounts of it. It has a bitter flavor and is used as an ingredient in dietary supplements , beverages, and foods.
41-478: About 550, see list Passiflora , known also as the passion flowers or passion vines , is a genus of about 550 species of flowering plants , the type genus of the family Passifloraceae . They are mostly tendril-bearing vines , with some being shrubs or trees . They can be woody or herbaceous . Passion flowers produce regular and usually showy flowers with a distinctive corona . There can be as many as eight concentric coronal series, as in
82-468: A distribution centered on Mexico. Supersection Auriculata includes eight species from South America, one of which is also found in Central America. Supersection Multiflora includes nineteen species. Supersection Decaloba includes 123 species. Passiflora has a largely neotropic distribution, unlike other genera in the family Passifloraceae , which includes more Old World species (such as
123-477: A long history of use as a traditional medicine by Native Americans in North America and were adapted by European colonists . The fresh or dried leaves of maypop are used to make a tea that is used as a sedative . Passionflower as dried powder or an extract is used as a dietary supplement . There is insufficient clinical evidence for using passionflower to treat any medical condition. Passionflower
164-425: A potent anti-inflammatory compound in a variety of in vitro and in vivo bioassay models, oral quercetin in human subjects has not exhibited the desired effects. Because of low solubility and poor bioavailability of quercetin, derivatives have been synthesized to overcome these challenges and enhance its biological activity, leading to compounds with improved properties for possible therapeutic applications. Quercetin
205-676: A seemingly crowded leaf), extrafloral nectaries , trichomes , variegation , and chemical defenses. These, combined with adaptations on the part of the butterflies, were important in the foundation of coevolutionary theory . Recent studies have shown that passiflora both grow faster and protect themselves better in high-nitrogen soils. In low-nitrogen environments, passiflora focus on growth rather than defense and are more vulnerable to herbivores. The following lepidoptera larvae are known to feed on Passiflora : The generally high pollinator and parasite specificity in Passiflora may have led to
246-475: A statistically significant extent in a particular genetic subpopulation, but in absolute terms the effect was almost negligible. In 2010, the U. S. Food and Drug Administration acknowledged high-purity quercetin as generally recognized as safe for use as an ingredient in various specified food categories at levels up to 500 mg per serving. Quercetin has been studied in basic research and small clinical trials . While supplements have been promoted for
287-419: A sticky fluid. Many small insects get stuck to this and get digested to nutrient -rich goo by proteases and acid phosphatases . Since the insects usually killed are rarely major pests , this passion flower seems to be a protocarnivorous plant . Banana passion flower or "banana poka" ( P. tarminiana ), originally from Central Brazil , is an invasive weed , especially on the islands of Hawaii . It
328-400: Is a flavonoid widely distributed in nature. The name has been used since 1857, and is derived from quercetum (oak forest), after the oak genus Quercus . It is a naturally occurring polar auxin transport inhibitor. Quercetin is one of the most abundant dietary flavonoids, with an average daily consumption of 25–50 mg . In red onions, higher concentrations of quercetin occur in
369-766: Is a rare vine growing in the Tropical Andes southwards from Venezuela between 2,500 and 3,800 metres (8,200 and 12,500 ft) in altitude, and in Coastal Central Chile, where it only occurs in a few tens of square kilometres of fog forest by the sea, near Zapallar. P. pinnatistipula has a round fruit, unusual in Tacsonia group species like banana passion flower and P. mixta , with their elongated tubes and brightly red to rose-colored petals. Notable and sometimes economically significant pathogens of Passiflora are several sac fungi of
410-511: Is classified as generally recognized as safe for use as a food ingredient in the U.S. The passion in passion flower purportedly refers to the passion of Jesus in Christian theology ; the word passion comes from the Latin passio , meaning 'suffering'. In the 15th and 16th centuries, Spanish Christian missionaries adopted the unique physical structures of this plant, particularly
451-561: Is commonly spread by feral pigs eating the fruits. It overgrows and smothers stands of endemic vegetation, mainly on roadsides. Blue passion flower ( P. caerulea ) is an invasive species in Spain and considered likely to threaten ecosystems there. On the other hand, some species are endangered due to unsustainable logging and other forms of habitat destruction . For example, the Chilean passion flower ( P. pinnatistipula )
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#1732780481903492-623: Is currently being done extensively for flowers, foliage and fruit. The following hybrids and cultivars have gained the Royal Horticultural Society 's Award of Garden Merit : During the Victorian era the flower (which in all but a few species lasts only one day) was very popular, and many hybrids were created using the winged-stem passion flower ( P. alata ), the blue passion flower ( P. caerulea ) and other tropical species. Many cool-growing Passiflora from
533-641: Is known as Krishnakamala because of its dark violet blue colour which resembles Bhagwan Krishna . List of Passiflora species This is a list of species in the botanical genus Passiflora . There are in excess of 550 species mostly occurring in the Neotropics , but with a few species in the Nearctic and some others in Asia and Australasia. The list is incomplete. Quercetin Quercetin
574-403: Is one of the most effective inducers of the phase II detoxification enzymes. In vitro studies show that quercetin is a strong inhibitor of the cytochrome P450 enzymes CYP3A4 and CYP2C19 and a moderate inhibitor of CYP2D6 . Drugs that are metabolized by these pathways may have increased effect. An in vivo study found that quercetin supplementation slows the metabolism of caffeine to
615-484: Is rapidly metabolized (via glucuronidation ) after the ingestion of quercetin foods or supplements. Five metabolites (quercetin glucuronides) have been found in human plasma after quercetin ingestion. Taken together, the quercetin glucuronides have a half-life around 11–12 hours. In rats, quercetin did not undergo any significant phase I metabolism . In contrast, quercetin did undergo extensive phase II (conjugation) to produce metabolites that are more polar than
656-577: Is the 3- O - arabinoside , hyperoside is the 3- O - galactoside , isoquercitin is the 3- O - glucoside and spiraeoside is the 4′- O -glucoside. CTN-986 is a quercetin derivative found in cottonseeds and cottonseed oil. Miquelianin is the quercetin 3- O -β- D -glucuronopyranoside. Several taxifolin (also known as dihydroquercetin) glycosides also exist. Isoquercetin is the 3- O -glucoside of quercetin. The enzyme quercitrinase can be found in Aspergillus flavus . This enzyme hydrolyzes
697-469: Is the most species rich genus of both the family Passifloraceae and the tribe Passifloreae. With over 550 species, an extensive hierarchy of infrageneric ranks is required to represent the relationships of the species. The infrageneric classification of Passiflora not only uses the widely used ranks of subgenus, section and series, but also the rank of supersection. The New World species of Passiflora were first divided among 22 subgenera by Killip (1938) in
738-479: Is then converted into dihydroquercetin with flavanone 3-hydroxylase, which is then converted into quercetin using flavonol synthase . Quercetin is the aglycone form of a number of other flavonoid glycosides , such as rutin (also known as quercetin-3-O-rutinoside) and quercitrin , found in citrus fruit, buckwheat , and onions. Quercetin forms the glycosides quercitrin and rutin together with rhamnose and rutinose , respectively. Likewise guaijaverin
779-410: The amino acid α- alanine . Esters like ethyl butyrate , ethyl caproate , n - hexyl butyrate and n - hexyl caproate give the fruits their flavor and appetizing smell. Sugars , contained mainly in the fruit, are most significantly d- fructose , d- glucose and raffinose . Among enzymes , Passiflora was found to be rich in catalase , pectin methylesterase and phenolase . Passiflora
820-646: The blue passion flower ( P. caerulea ) now grows wild in Spain. The purple passionfruit ( P. edulis ) and its yellow relative flavicarpa have been introduced in many tropical regions as commercial crops. Passion flowers have floral structures adapted for biotic pollination . Pollinators of Passiflora include bumblebees , carpenter bees (e.g., Xylocopa sonorina ), wasps , bats , and hummingbirds (especially hermits such as Phaethornis ); some others are additionally capable of self-pollination . Passiflora often exhibit high levels of pollinator specificity, which has led to frequent coevolution across
861-512: The two-flowered passion flower ( P. biflora ) has been sequenced . Most species have round or elongated edible fruit. A native source of beta-Carbolines (e.g., passion flower in North America) is mixed with Desmanthus illinoensis (Illinois bundleflower) root bark to produce a hallucinogenic drink called prairiehuasca, which is an analog of the shamanic brew ayahuasca . Passiflora incarnata (maypop) leaves and roots have
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#1732780481903902-756: The Andes Mountains can be grown successfully for their beautiful flowers and fruit in cooler Mediterranean climates, such as the Monterey Bay and San Francisco in California and along the western coast of the U.S. into Canada . One blue passion flower or hybrid even grew to large size at Malmö Central Station in Sweden . Passion flowers have been a subject of studies investigating extranuclear inheritance ; paternal inheritance of chloroplast DNA has been documented in this genus. The plastome of
943-628: The Roman Catholic heartland, the regularly shaped flowers have reminded people of the face of a clock . In Israel they are known as "clock-flower" ( שעונית ) and in Greece as "clock plant" ( ρολογιά ); in Japan too, they are known as tokeisō ( 時計草 , 'clock plant') . In Hawaiian, they are called lilikoʻi ; lī is a string used for tying fabric together, such as a shoelace , and liko means 'to spring forth leave'. In India , it
984-463: The anti-disease products – as defined by "sections 201(g)(1)(B) and/or 201 (g)(1)(C) of the Act [21 U.S.C. § 321(g)(1)(B) and/or 21 U.S.C. § 321(g)(1)(C)] because they are intended for use in the diagnosis, cure, mitigation, treatment, or prevention of disease", conditions not met by the manufacturers. Little research has been conducted into the safety of quercetin supplementation in humans, and
1025-519: The biological effects presumed from in vitro studies are unlikely to apply in vivo . Quercetin supplements in the aglycone form are less bioavailable than the quercetin glycoside often found in foods, especially red onions. Ingestion with high-fat foods may increase bioavailability compared to ingestion with low-fat foods, and carbohydrate-rich foods may increase absorption of quercetin by stimulating gastrointestinal motility and colonic fermentation . Whereas quercetin has been shown to be
1066-502: The case of P. xiikzodz . The flower is pentamerous (except for a few Southeast Asian species) and ripens into an indehiscent fruit with numerous seeds. The fruit ranges from 5–20 centimetres (2–8 in) long and 2.5–5 cm (1–2 in) across, depending upon the species or cultivar . Many species of Passiflora have been found to contain beta-carboline harmala alkaloids , some of which are MAO inhibitors . The flower and fruit have only traces of these chemicals, but
1107-427: The first monograph of the genus. More recent work has reduced these to 4, which are commonly accepted today (in order from most basally to most recently branching): Some studies have shown that the segregate Old World genera Hollrungia and Tetrapathaea are nested within Passiflora , and form a fifth subgenus ( Tetrapathaea ). Other studies support the current four subgenus classification. Relationships below
1148-465: The general phenylpropanoid pathway using phenylalanine ammonia-lyase , cinnamate-4-hydroxylase , and 4-coumaroyl-CoA-ligase . One molecule of 4-coumaroyl-CoA is added to three molecules of malonyl-CoA to form tetrahydroxychalcone using 7,2′-dihydroxy-4′-methoxyisoflavanol synthase. Tetrahydroxychalcone is then converted into naringenin using chalcone isomerase . Naringenin is converted into eriodictyol using flavanoid 3′-hydroxylase. Eriodictyol
1189-679: The genus Adenia ). The vast majority of Passiflora are found in Mexico, Central America, the United States and South America, although there are additional representatives in Southeast Asia and Oceania . New species continue to be identified: for example, P. xishuangbannaensis and P. pardifolia have only been known to the scientific community since 2005 and 2006, respectively. Some species of Passiflora have been naturalized beyond their native ranges. For example,
1230-759: The genus Septoria (including S. passiflorae ), the undescribed proteobacterium called " Pseudomonas tomato " ( pv. passiflorae ), the Potyvirus passionfruit woodiness virus , and the Carlavirus Passiflora latent virus . Passion flower is not recommended during pregnancy because it may induce contractions. Consuming passion flower products may cause drowsiness, nausea , dizziness, abnormal heart rhythms , asthma , or rhinitis . A number of species of Passiflora are cultivated outside their natural range for both their flowers and fruit. Hundreds of hybrids have been named; hybridizing
1271-527: The genus), quercetin , rutin , saponarin , shaftoside , vicenin and vitexin . Maypop, blue passion flower ( P. caerulea ), and perhaps others contain the flavone chrysin . Also documented to occur at least in some Passiflora in quantity are the hydrocarbon nonacosane and the anthocyanidin pelargonidin -3-diglycoside. The genus is rich in organic acids including formic , butyric , linoleic , linolenic , malic , myristic , oleic and palmitic acids as well as phenolic compounds, and
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1312-616: The genus. The sword-billed hummingbird ( Ensifera ensifera ) is a notable example: it, with its immensely elongated bill, is the sole pollinator of 37 species of high Andean Passiflora in the supersection Tacsonia . The leaves are used for feeding by the larvae of a number of species of Lepidoptera . Famously, they are exclusively targeted by many butterfly species of the tribe Heliconiini . The many defensive adaptations visible on Passiflora include diverse leaf shapes (which help disguise their identity), colored nubs (which mimic butterfly eggs and can deter Heliconians from ovipositing on
1353-485: The glycoside quercitrin to release quercetin and L - rhamnose . It is an enzyme in the rutin catabolic pathway. The bioavailability of quercetin in humans after oral intake is very low, with one study concluding it must be less than 1%. Intravenous injection of quercetin shows a rapid decay in concentration described by a two-compartment model (initial half-life of 8.8 minutes, terminal half-life of 2.4 hours). Because it undergoes rapid and extensive metabolism,
1394-1244: The leaves and the roots often contain more. The most common of these alkaloids is harman , but harmaline , harmalol , harmine , and harmol are also present. The species known to bear such alkaloids include: P. actinia , P. alata (winged-stem passion flower), P. alba , P. bryonioides (cupped passion flower), P. caerulea (blue passion flower), P. capsularis , P. decaisneana , P. edulis (passion fruit), P. eichleriana , P. foetida (stinking passion flower), P. incarnata (maypop), P. quadrangularis (giant granadilla), P. suberosa , P. subpeltata and P. warmingii . Other compounds found in passion flowers are coumarins (e.g. scopoletin and umbelliferone ), maltol , phytosterols (e.g. lutenin ) and cyanogenic glycosides (e.g. gynocardin ) which render some species, i.e. P. adenopoda , somewhat poisonous. Many flavonoids and their glycosides have been found in Passiflora , including apigenin , benzoflavone , homoorientin , 7-isoorientin , isoshaftoside , isovitexin (or saponaretin ), kaempferol , lucenin , luteolin , n- orientin , passiflorine (named after
1435-562: The numbers of its various flower parts, as symbols of the last days of Jesus and especially his crucifixion : The flower has been given names related to this symbolism throughout Europe since the 15th century. In Spain , it is known as espina de Cristo ('thorn of Christ'). Older Germanic names include Christus-Krone ('Christ's crown'), Christus-Strauss ('Christ's bouquet'), Dorn-Krone ('crown of thorns'), Jesus-Lijden ('Jesus' passion'), Marter ('passion') or Muttergottes-Stern ('Mother of God's star'). Outside
1476-411: The outermost rings and in the part closest to the root, the latter being the part of the plant with the highest concentration. One study found that organically grown tomatoes had 79% more quercetin than non-organically grown fruit. Quercetin is present in various kinds of honey from different plant sources. In plants, phenylalanine is converted to 4-coumaroyl-CoA in a series of steps known as
1517-728: The parent substance, hence are more rapidly excreted from the body. In vitro , the meta- hydroxyl group of catechol is methylated by catechol-O-methyltransferase . Four of the five hydroxyl groups of quercetin are glucuronidated by UDP-glucuronosyltransferase . The exception is the 5-hydroxyl group of the flavonoid ring, which generally does not undergo glucuronidation. The major metabolites of orally absorbed quercetin are quercetin-3-glucuronide , 3'-methylquercetin-3-glucuronide , and quercetin-3'-sulfate . A methyl metabolite of quercetin has been shown in vitro to be more effective than quercetin at inhibiting lipopolysaccharide -activated macrophages . Compared to other flavonoids , quercetin
1558-450: The results are insufficient to give confidence that the practice is safe. In particular, a lack of safety information exists on the effect of quercetin supplementation for pregnant women, breastfeeding women, children, and adolescents. The hormonal effects of quercetin found in animal studies raise the suspicion of a parallel effect in humans, particularly in respect of estrogen -dependent tumors. Quercetin supplementation can interfere with
1599-847: The subgenus level are not known with certainty and are an active area of research. The Old World species form two clades – supersection Disemma (part of subgenus Decaloba ) and subgenus Tetrapathaea . The former is composed of 21 species divided into sections Disemma (three Australian species), Holrungiella (one New Guinean species) and Octandranthus (seventeen south and east Asian species). The remaining (New World) species of subgenus Decaloba are divided into seven supersections. Supersection Pterosperma includes four species from Central America and southern Mexico. Supersection Hahniopathanthus includes five species from Central America, Mexico and northernmost South America . Supersection Cicea includes nineteen species, with apetalous flowers. Supersection Bryonioides includes twenty-one species, with
1640-512: The treatment of cancer and various other diseases, there is no high-quality evidence that quercetin (via supplements or in food) is useful to treat cancer or any other disease. The US Food and Drug Administration has issued warning letters to several manufacturers advertising on their product labels and websites that quercetin product(s) can be used to treat diseases. The FDA regards such quercetin advertising and products as unapproved – with unauthorized health claims concerning
1681-450: The tremendous morphological variation in the genus. It is thought to have among the highest foliar diversity among all plant genera, with leaf shapes ranging from unlobed to five-lobed frequently found on the same plant. Coevolution can be a major driver of speciation, and may be responsible for the radiation of certain clades of Passiflora such as Tacsonia . The bracts of the stinking passion flower are covered by hairs which exude