146-440: Peak oil is the point when global oil production reaches its maximum rate, after which it will begin to decline irreversibly. The main concern is that global transportation relies heavily on gasoline and diesel. Transitioning to electric vehicles , biofuels , or more efficient transport (like trains and waterways ) could help reduce oil demand. Peak oil relates closely to oil depletion ; while petroleum reserves are finite,
292-437: A boiling point near 85 °C (185 °F) ( n -octane boils at 125.62 °C (258.12 °F) ), it was well-suited for early carburetors (evaporators). The development of a "spray nozzle" carburetor enabled the use of less volatile fuels. Further improvements in engine efficiency were attempted at higher compression ratios , but early attempts were blocked by the premature explosion of fuel, known as knocking . In 1891,
438-492: A "well to tank" basis or 10 to 45% more on a "well to wheels" basis, which includes the carbon emitted from combustion of the final product. While the energy used, resources needed, and environmental effects of extracting unconventional sources have traditionally been prohibitively high, major unconventional oil sources being considered for large-scale production are the extra heavy oil in the Orinoco Belt of Venezuela ,
584-408: A 50% probability of being produced in the future (probable); and discovered reserves that have a 10% possibility of being produced in the future (possible). Reserve estimates based on these are referred to as 1P, proven (at least 90% probability); 2P, proven and probable (at least 50% probability); and 3P, proven, probable and possible (at least 10% probability), respectively. As stated previously, oil
730-456: A condition called "stale fuel". Gasoline containing ethanol is especially subject to absorbing atmospheric moisture, then forming gums, solids, or two phases (a hydrocarbon phase floating on top of a water-alcohol phase). The presence of these degradation products in the fuel tank or fuel lines plus a carburetor or fuel injection components makes it harder to start the engine or causes reduced engine performance On resumption of regular engine use,
876-459: A continued increase in oil demand, potentially exceeding pre-pandemic levels. In 2024 OPEC suggested that global demand for oil will not decline. Energy demand is distributed amongst four broad sectors: transportation, residential, commercial, and industrial. Oil demand primarily concerns the transportation sector, as 50% of oil use in OECD countries are for road transportation. This is a result of
1022-449: A controlled process called deflagration . However, the unburned mixture may autoignite by pressure and heat alone, rather than igniting from the spark plug at exactly the right time, causing a rapid pressure rise that can damage the engine. This is often referred to as engine knocking or end-gas knock. Knocking can be reduced by increasing the gasoline's resistance to autoignition , which is expressed by its octane rating. Octane rating
1168-472: A conversion ratio of 650 liters (170 U.S. gal; 140 imp gal) of oil per one ton of coal, as against 150 liters (40 U.S. gal; 33 imp gal) of shale oil per one ton of oil shale. A critical measure of the viability of oil shale as an energy source lies in the ratio of the energy produced by the shale to the energy used in its mining and processing, a ratio known as " energy return on investment " (EROI). A 1984 study estimated
1314-491: A different production profile depending on the type. For tight oil, production begins at its maximum, or near its maximum, and then quickly peaks afterwards permanently. As mentioned previously in the production section, oil production is very concentrated in a few fields, therefore these few fields (out of every field) can dictate where oil production would be headed. If these few fields were to decline, then all oil production would decline. In 2019 when Saudi Aramco went public,
1460-443: A fine mist. Quality gasoline should be stable for six months if stored properly, but can degrade over time. Gasoline stored for a year will most likely be able to be burned in an internal combustion engine without too much trouble. However, the effects of long-term storage will become more noticeable with each passing month until a time comes when the gasoline should be diluted with ever-increasing amounts of freshly made fuel so that
1606-500: A gasoline depends upon: The various refinery streams blended to make gasoline have different characteristics. Some important streams include the following: The terms above are the jargon used in the oil industry, and the terminology varies. Currently, many countries set limits on gasoline aromatics in general, benzene in particular, and olefin (alkene) content. Such regulations have led to an increasing preference for alkane isomers, such as isomerate or alkylate, as their octane rating
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#17327982956101752-470: A greater volume fraction of aromatics. Finished marketable gasoline is traded (in Europe) with a standard reference of 0.755 kilograms per liter (6.30 lb/U.S. gal), (7,5668 lb/ imp gal) its price is escalated or de-escalated according to its actual density. Because of its low density, gasoline floats on water, and therefore water cannot generally be used to extinguish a gasoline fire unless applied in
1898-412: A growing annual target of total gallons blended. Although the mandate does not require a specific percentage of ethanol, annual increases in the target combined with declining gasoline consumption have caused the typical ethanol content in gasoline to approach 10 percent. Most fuel pumps display a sticker that states that the fuel may contain up to 10 percent ethanol, an intentional disparity that reflects
2044-574: A high compression ratio. A high expansion ratio is also one of the two key reasons for the efficiency of diesel engines , along with the elimination of pumping losses due to throttling of the intake airflow. The lower energy content of LPG by liquid volume in comparison to gasoline is due mainly to its lower density. This lower density is a property of the lower molecular weight of propane (LPG's chief component) compared to gasoline's blend of various hydrocarbon compounds with heavier molecular weights than propane. Conversely, LPG's energy content by weight
2190-401: A higher compression ratio through the concomitant higher expansion ratio on the power stroke, which is by far the greater effect. The higher expansion ratio extracts more work from the high-pressure gas created by the combustion process. An Atkinson cycle engine uses the timing of the valve events to produce the benefits of a high expansion ratio without the disadvantages, chiefly detonation, of
2336-401: A lower EROI are theoretically more environmentally damaging than those with higher EROIs, due to the larger amount of resources required to extract the oil. For instance, building a gigantic oil rig produces a lot of greenhouse gas emissions, but is a requirement to access "difficult" deep water offshore oil reserves. As a finite resource, naturally every oilfield eventually declines. Generally,
2482-700: A marine type of Dictyonema shale served for uranium production in Sillamäe , Estonia, and between 1950 and 1989 Sweden used alum shale for the same purposes. Oil shale gas has served as a substitute for natural gas , but as of 2009 , producing oil shale gas as a natural-gas substitute remained economically infeasible. The shale oil derived from oil shale does not directly substitute for crude oil in all applications. It may contain higher concentrations of olefins , oxygen, and nitrogen than conventional crude oil. Some shale oils may have higher sulfur or arsenic content. By comparison with West Texas Intermediate ,
2628-643: A nation with a good supply of high-octane gasoline would have the advantage in air power. In 1943, the Rolls-Royce Merlin aero engine produced 980 kilowatts (1,320 hp) using 100 RON fuel from a modest 27 liters (1,600 cu in) displacement. By the time of Operation Overlord , both the RAF and USAAF were conducting some operations in Europe using 150 RON fuel (100/150 avgas ), obtained by adding 2.5 percent aniline to 100-octane avgas. By this time,
2774-587: A number of environmental concerns, such as land use , waste disposal , water use , waste-water management , greenhouse-gas emissions and air pollution . Oil shale, an organic-rich sedimentary rock, belongs to the group of sapropel fuels . It does not have a definite geological definition nor a specific chemical formula, and its seams do not always have discrete boundaries. Oil shales vary considerably in their mineral content, chemical composition, age, type of kerogen, and depositional history, and not all oil shales would necessarily be classified as shales in
2920-456: A particular gasoline-blend, which will resist igniting too early are measured as the octane rating of the fuel blend. Gasoline blends with stable octane ratings are produced in several fuel-grades for various types of motors. A low octane rated fuel may cause engine knocking and reduced efficiency in reciprocating engines . Tetraethyl lead was once widely used to increase the octane rating but are not used in modern automotive gasoline due to
3066-472: A potential abundant source of oil. However, the various attempts to develop oil shale deposits have had limited success. Only Estonia and China have well-established oil shale industries, and Brazil, Germany, and Russia utilize oil shale to some extent. Oil shale can be burned directly in furnaces as a low-grade fuel for power generation and district heating or used as a raw material in chemical and construction-materials processing. Heating oil shale to
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#17327982956103212-546: A rate of 5% to 12% per year. According to a study of large oilfields (reserves greater than 500 million barrels) published in 2009, the average decline rate of onshore fields was about 5%, and offshore fields were about 9.5%. An annual rate of decline of 5.1% in 800 of the world's largest oil fields was reported by the International Energy Agency in their World Energy Outlook 2008 . In 2013 an informal study of 733 giant oil fields concluded that only 32% of
3358-417: A representative species, performs the chemical reaction: By weight, combustion of gasoline releases about 46.7 megajoules per kilogram (13.0 kWh /kg; 21.2 MJ/ lb ) or by volume 33.6 megajoules per liter (9.3 kWh/L; 127 MJ/U.S. gal; 121,000 BTU/U.S. gal), quoting the lower heating value . Gasoline blends differ, and therefore actual energy content varies according to
3504-721: A result of higher prices in the 21st century. In October 2009, the USGS updated the Orinoco tar sands (Venezuela) recoverable "mean value" to 513 billion barrels (8.16 × 10 m), with a 90% chance of being within the range of 380-652 billion barrels (103.7 × 10 ^ m), making this area "one of the world's largest recoverable oil accumulations". Moreover, oil extracted from these sources typically contains contaminants such as sulfur and heavy metals that are energy-intensive to extract and can leave tailings , ponds containing hydrocarbon sludge, in some cases. The same applies to much of
3650-621: A result of the wide range of potential definitions, different oil production forecasts may vary based on which classes of liquids they choose to include or exclude. Some common definitions for "conventional" oil and "unconventional" oil are detailed below. Conventional oil is oil that is extracted using "traditional" techniques (i.e., in common use before 2000) techniques. Conventional oil commonly refers to onshore oilfields and shallow offshore oilfields that are "easy" to extract. It has been recognized that conventional oil production has peaked around 2005–2006. What has prevented peak oil from then on
3796-464: A sufficiently high temperature causes the chemical process of pyrolysis to yield a vapor . Upon cooling the vapor, the liquid unconventional oil , called shale oil , is separated from combustible oil-shale gas . Shale oil is a substitute for conventional crude oil; however, extracting shale oil is costlier than the production of conventional crude oil both financially and in terms of its environmental impact . Oil-shale mining and processing raise
3942-441: A typical gasoline consists of a homogeneous mixture of hydrocarbons with between 4 and 12 carbon atoms per molecule (commonly referred to as C4–C12). It is a mixture of paraffins ( alkanes ), olefins ( alkenes ), napthenes ( cycloalkanes ), and aromatics . The use of the term paraffin in place of the standard chemical nomenclature alkane is particular to the oil industry (which relies extensively on jargon). The composition of
4088-509: Is extracted in Estonia , mainly because Estonia uses several oil-shale-fired power plants , which has an installed capacity of 2,967 megawatts (MW). By comparison, China's oil shale power plants have an installed capacity of 12 MW, and Germany's have 9.9 MW. A 470 MW oil shale power plant in Jordan is under construction as of 2020. Israel, Romania and Russia have in
4234-739: Is 10 percent ethanol, and 98E5, which is 5 percent ethanol. Most gasoline sold in Sweden has 5–15 percent ethanol added. Three different ethanol blends are sold in the Netherlands—E5, E10 and hE15. The last of these differs from standard ethanol–gasoline blends in that it consists of 15 percent hydrous ethanol (i.e., the ethanol–water azeotrope ) instead of the anhydrous ethanol traditionally used for blending with gasoline. The Brazilian National Agency of Petroleum, Natural Gas and Biofuels (ANP) requires gasoline for automobile use to have 27.5 percent of ethanol added to its composition. Pure hydrated ethanol
4380-698: Is US tight oil production, which rapidly increased since the Global Financial Crisis in 2008. Additionally, but to a lesser extent, Canadian oil-sands production has helped increase oil supply since 2008. In the same way, sources of natural gas production are usually divided into "conventional" and "unconventional". Unlike conventional oil, unconventional oil refers to oil that is "difficult" to extract. The number of steps required translates into extremely high production costs. Common unconventional oil sources include: Other less common unconventional oil sources include oil shale (see article). It
4526-484: Is a petrochemical product characterized as a transparent, yellowish, and flammable liquid normally used as a fuel for spark-ignited internal combustion engines . When formulated as a fuel for engines , gasoline is chemically composed of organic compounds derived from the fractional distillation of petroleum and later chemically enhanced with gasoline additives . It is a high-volume profitable product produced in crude oil refineries. The fuel-characteristics of
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4672-457: Is a naturally colorless liquid, many gasolines are dyed in various colors to indicate their composition and acceptable uses. In Australia, the lowest grade of gasoline (RON 91) was dyed a light shade of red/orange, but is now the same color as the medium grade (RON 95) and high octane (RON 98), which are dyed yellow. In the U.S., aviation gasoline ( avgas ) is dyed to identify its octane rating and to distinguish it from kerosene-based jet fuel, which
4818-509: Is a recession. Recently, in 2020 oil demand sharply fell from 2019 levels due to the COVID-19 pandemic , but recovered swiftly by 2022. In 2020, British Petroleum (BP) claimed that the world had hit peak oil demand, predicting that oil demand would never recover to pre-pandemic levels due to increased proliferation of electric vehicles and stronger action on climate change . As of 2023, new projections from Enverus Intelligence Research and
4964-509: Is also available as a fuel. Legislation requires retailers to label fuels containing ethanol on the dispenser, and limits ethanol use to 10 percent of gasoline in Australia. Such gasoline is commonly called E10 by major brands, and it is cheaper than regular unleaded gasoline. The federal Renewable Fuel Standard (RFS) effectively requires refiners and blenders to blend renewable biofuels (mostly ethanol) with gasoline, sufficient to meet
5110-460: Is called E85 . The most extensive use of ethanol takes place in Brazil , where the ethanol is derived from sugarcane . In 2004, over 13 billion liters (3.4 × 10 ^ U.S. gal) of ethanol was produced in the U.S. for fuel use, mostly from corn and sold as E10. E85 is slowly becoming available in much of the U.S., though many of the relatively few stations vending E85 are not open to
5256-681: Is called "crude oil" production (which may also be referred to as "crude and condensate" production in US EIA statistics), which is what is actually refined into the common fuels most people know such as gasoline and diesel fuel, in addition to other common fuels. Other oil production statistics may be named "total liquids production," or "petroleum and other liquids" in EIA statistics. This includes crude oil production in addition to other hydrocarbon liquids such as natural-gas liquids (NGLs) . These two production numbers are distinct, and shouldn't be thought of as
5402-437: Is called also frequently shale oil. General composition of oil shales constitutes inorganic matrix, bitumens, and kerogen. While the bitumen portion of oil shales is soluble in carbon disulfide , the kerogen portion is insoluble in carbon disulfide and may contain iron , vanadium , nickel , molybdenum , and uranium . Oil shale contains a lower percentage of organic matter than coal . In commercial grades of oil shale
5548-446: Is concerned with the global supply of oil, due to the importance of oil to the global economy. The central idea revolves around technological advancements such as the development of electric vehicles and potentially biofuels in order to phase out gasoline or diesel powered vehicles. Then, in theory, oil demand would fall over time. In the past 4 decades, oil demand has secularly increased . Generally, oil demand increases unless there
5694-445: Is divided up into different types, therefore those counting up reserves should keep that in mind. Conventional oil reserves are different than unconventional reserves. [World] reserves are confused and in fact inflated. Many of the so-called reserves are in fact resources. They're not delineated, they're not accessible, they're not available for production. Sadad Al Husseini estimated that 300 billion barrels (48 × 10 ^ m) of
5840-483: Is higher than ever thanks to the Permian Basin . Venezuela has oil sands deposits similar in size to those of Canada, and approximately equal to the world's reserves of conventional oil. Venezuela's Orinoco Belt tar sands are less viscous than Canada's Athabasca oil sands – meaning they can be produced by more conventional means – but they are buried too deep to be extracted by surface mining . Estimates of
5986-490: Is higher than gasoline's due to a higher hydrogen -to- carbon ratio. Molecular weights of the species in the representative octane combustion are 114, 32, 44, and 18 for C 8 H 18 , O 2 , CO 2 , and H 2 O, respectively; therefore one kilogram (2.2 lb) of fuel reacts with 3.51 kilograms (7.7 lb) of oxygen to produce 3.09 kilograms (6.8 lb) of carbon dioxide and 1.42 kilograms (3.1 lb) of water. Spark-ignition engines are designed to burn gasoline in
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6132-634: Is higher than n-alkanes. In the European Union, the benzene limit is set at one percent by volume for all grades of automotive gasoline. This is usually achieved by avoiding feeding C6, in particular cyclohexane , to the reformer unit, where it would be converted to benzene. Therefore, only (desulfurized) heavy virgin naphtha (HVN) is fed to the reformer unit Gasoline can also contain other organic compounds , such as organic ethers (deliberately added), plus small levels of contaminants, in particular organosulfur compounds (which are usually removed at
6278-422: Is left colorless. In Canada, the gasoline for marine and farm use is dyed red and is not subject to fuel excise tax in most provinces. Oxygenate blending adds oxygen -bearing compounds such as MTBE , ETBE , TAME , TAEE , ethanol , and biobutanol . The presence of these oxygenates reduces the amount of carbon monoxide and unburned fuel in the exhaust. In many areas throughout the U.S., oxygenate blending
6424-501: Is mandated by EPA regulations to reduce smog and other airborne pollutants. For example, in Southern California fuel must contain two percent oxygen by weight, resulting in a mixture of 5.6 percent ethanol in gasoline. The resulting fuel is often known as reformulated gasoline (RFG) or oxygenated gasoline, or, in the case of California, California reformulated gasoline (CARBOB). The federal requirement that RFG contain oxygen
6570-467: Is may vary. The geology of a region affects the type of oil underground. The types of hydrocarbons produced from an oilfield may also vary depending on the geology. Crude oil generally comes in various different 'grades,' commonly classified as "light," "medium," 'heavy," and "extra heavy." The exact definitions of these grades vary depending on the region from which the oil came. Grades of oil are also assessed by API gravity . Light oil flows naturally to
6716-448: Is measured relative to a mixture of 2,2,4-trimethylpentane (an isomer of octane ) and n- heptane . There are different conventions for expressing octane ratings, so the same physical fuel may have several different octane ratings based on the measure used. One of the best known is the research octane number (RON). The octane rating of typical commercially available gasoline varies by country. In Finland , Sweden , and Norway , 95 RON
6862-476: Is not keeping pace with production. As of 2010, finding new oil had reportedly become much more difficult and expensive, as oil producers had to search through more remote and inhospitable parts of the planet. Different classes of potential conventional crude oil reserves include crude oil with 90% certainty of being technically able to be produced from reservoirs (through a wellbore using primary, secondary, improved, enhanced, or tertiary methods); all crude with
7008-406: Is produced in oil refineries . Roughly 72 liters (19 U.S. gal) of gasoline is derived from a 160-liter (42 U.S. gal) barrel of crude oil . Material separated from crude oil via distillation , called virgin or straight-run gasoline, does not meet specifications for modern engines (particularly the octane rating ; see below), but can be pooled to the gasoline blend. The bulk of
7154-571: Is sometimes produced from drilled wells. Examples of oil- bearing shales are the Bakken Formation , Pierre Shale , Niobrara Formation , and Eagle Ford Formation . Accordingly, shale oil produced from oil shale should not be confused with tight oil, which is also frequently called shale oil. A 2016 estimate of global deposits set the total world resources of oil shale equivalent of 6.05 trillion barrels (962 billion cubic metres) of oil in place . Oil shale has gained attention as
7300-458: Is sporadic or seasonal (little to no use for one or more seasons of the year). Users have been advised to keep gasoline containers more than half full and properly capped to reduce air exposure, to avoid storage at high temperatures, to run an engine for ten minutes to circulate the stabilizer through all components prior to storage, and to run the engine at intervals to purge stale fuel from the carburetor. Gasoline stability requirements are set by
7446-546: Is still the largest consumer of oil globally (as of 2022). Generally, when countries economically develop , they use more energy, which includes using more oil. In recent years, China surpassed the United States as the world's largest crude oil importer in 2015. This was a result of China developing in addition to US oil exports decreasing due to increased US tight oil production. Gasoline Gasoline ( North American English ) or petrol ( Commonwealth English )
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#17327982956107592-493: Is the standard for regular unleaded gasoline and 98 RON is also available as a more expensive option. In the United Kingdom, over 95 percent of gasoline sold has 95 RON and is marketed as Unleaded or Premium Unleaded. Super Unleaded, with 97/98 RON and branded high-performance fuels (e.g., Shell V-Power, BP Ultimate) with 99 RON make up the balance. Gasoline with 102 RON may rarely be available for racing purposes. In
7738-600: Is unknown. Humans have used oil shale as a fuel since prehistoric times, since it generally burns without any processing. Around 3000 BC, "rock oil" was used in Mesopotamia for road construction and making architectural adhesives. Britons of the Iron Age used tractable oil shales to fashion cists for burial, or just polish it to create ornaments. In the 10th century, the Arab physician Masawaih al-Mardini (Mesue
7884-699: Is used in Canada and the U.S. to boost octane rating. Its use in the U.S. has been restricted by regulations, although it is currently allowed. Its use in the European Union is restricted by Article 8a of the Fuel Quality Directive following its testing under the Protocol for the evaluation of effects of metallic fuel-additives on the emissions performance of vehicles. Gummy, sticky resin deposits result from oxidative degradation of gasoline during long-term storage. These harmful deposits arise from
8030-801: Is utilized as a fuel for thermal power-plants, burning it (like coal) to drive steam turbines ; some of these plants employ the resulting heat for district heating of homes and businesses. In addition to its use as a fuel, oil shale may also serve in the production of specialty carbon fibers , adsorbent carbons , carbon black , phenols , resins, glues, tanning agents, mastic, road bitumen, cement, bricks, construction and decorative blocks, soil-additives, fertilizers, rock-wool insulation, glass, and pharmaceutical products. However, oil shale use for production of these items remains small or only in experimental development. Some oil shales yield sulfur , ammonia , alumina , soda ash , uranium, and nahcolite as shale-oil extraction byproducts. Between 1946 and 1952,
8176-703: Is utilized primarily in Brazil, China, Estonia and to some extent in Germany, and Russia. Several additional countries started assessing their reserves or had built experimental production plants, while others had phased out their oil shale industry. Oil shale serves for oil production in Estonia, Brazil, and China; for power generation in Estonia, China, and Germany; for cement production in Estonia, Germany, and China; and for use in chemical industries in China, Estonia, and Russia. As of 2009 , 80% of oil shale used globally
8322-596: Is very concentrated. Not just geographically depending on the country, but depending on the oilfields themselves. As of 2014, it was recognized that 25 oilfields account for 25% of global oil production, and a few hundred 'giant' oilfields (reserves greater than 500 million barrels) account for 50% of global oil production. Globally, the amount of oilfields is estimated to be between 50,000-70,000. Additionally, it has now been recognized that worldwide oil discoveries have been less than worldwide annual oil production since about 1980. More recently, there has been some research about
8468-560: Is worth mentioning that production of tight oil is mainly concentrated in the United States due to world-class geology and ease of borrowing (tight oil production is extremely expensive). Oil sands production is also concentrated in Canada for the same exact reasons (but different type of oil). There are also economic tight oil deposits in Argentina known as the Vaca Muerta Formation , but are less developed than tight oil in
8614-720: The Athabasca Oil Sands in the Western Canadian Sedimentary Basin , and the oil shale of the Green River Formation in Colorado , Utah , and Wyoming in the United States. Energy companies such as Syncrude and Suncor have been extracting bitumen for decades but production has increased greatly in recent years with the development of steam-assisted gravity drainage and other extraction technologies. Chuck Masters of
8760-520: The Fischer Assay . A 2016 estimate set the total world resources of oil shale equivalent to yield of 6.05 trillion barrels (962 billion cubic metres) of shale oil, with the largest resource deposits in the United States accounting more than 80% of the world total resource. For comparison, at the same time the world's proven oil reserves are estimated to be 1.6976 trillion barrels (269.90 billion cubic metres). The largest deposits in
8906-509: The Fischer–Tropsch process , Bergius process , or Karrick process . All the easy oil and gas in the world has pretty much been found. Now comes the harder work in finding and producing oil from more challenging environments and work areas. It is pretty clear that there is not much chance of finding any significant quantity of new cheap oil. Any new or unconventional oil is going to be expensive. Global discoveries of oilfields peaked in
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#17327982956109052-642: The Ghawar oilfield , which is the largest oil field in the world, was revealed to be producing much lower than what conventional wisdom at the time had assumed its production was. Although while no official data exists, certain analysts believe that the Ghawar field has entered into decline, corroborated by the aforementioned news from 2019. According to the US EIA in 2006, Saudi Aramco Senior Vice President Abdullah Saif estimated that its existing fields were declining at
9198-462: The Middle East 's undeveloped conventional oil reserves, much of which is heavy, viscous, and contaminated with sulfur and metals to the point of being unusable. However, high oil prices make these sources more financially appealing. A study by Wood Mackenzie suggests that by the early 2020s all the world's extra oil supply is likely to come from unconventional sources. Globally, oil production
9344-483: The RAND Corporation , the cost of producing a barrel of oil at a surface retorting complex in the United States (comprising a mine, retorting plant, upgrading plant , supporting utilities, and spent shale reclamation), would range between US$ 70–95 ($ 440–600/m , adjusted to 2005 values). This estimate considers varying levels of kerogen quality and extraction efficiency. In order to run a profitable operation,
9490-515: The Shukhov cracking process became the world's first commercial method to break down heavier hydrocarbons in crude oil to increase the percentage of lighter products compared to simple distillation. Commercial gasoline as well as other liquid transportation fuels are complex mixtures of hydrocarbons. The performance specification also varies with season, requiring less volatile blends during summer, in order to minimize evaporative losses. Gasoline
9636-449: The U.S. Clean Air Act banned the sale of leaded fuel for use in on-road vehicles in the U.S. The use of TEL also necessitated other additives, such as dibromoethane . European countries began replacing lead-containing additives by the end of the 1980s, and by the end of the 1990s, leaded gasoline was banned within the entire European Union with an exception for Avgas 100LL for general aviation . The UAE started to switch to unleaded in
9782-515: The U.S. Energy Information Administration has pointed out that after the first wave of discoveries in an area, most oil and natural gas reserve growth comes not from discoveries of new fields, but from extensions and additional gas found within existing fields. A report by the UK Energy Research Centre noted that "discovery" is often used ambiguously, and explained the seeming contradiction between falling discovery rates since
9928-528: The U.S. Energy Information Administration suggest that peak oil demand will not occur before 2030. Enverus forecasts global oil demand to reach 108 million barrels per day by 2030, driven by slower improvements in fuel economy and electric vehicle adoption in the U.S. Similarly, the EIA has updated its estimates, predicting global liquid fuels consumption will be 102.91 million barrels per day in 2024 and 104.26 million barrels per day in 2025, due to higher-than-expected non- OECD consumption. These updates indicate
10074-616: The USGS estimates that, "Taken together, these resource occurrences, in the Western Hemisphere , are approximately equal to the Identified Reserves of conventional crude oil accredited to the Middle East." Authorities familiar with the resources believe that the world's ultimate reserves of unconventional oil are several times as large as those of conventional oil and will be highly profitable for companies as
10220-538: The biodegradation of oil, heat and pressure have not (yet) transformed the kerogen in oil shale into petroleum, which means its maturation does not exceed early mesocatagenetic . Oil shales differ also from oil-bearing shales, shale deposits that contain tight oil that is sometimes produced from drilled wells. Examples of oil-bearing shales are the Bakken Formation , Pierre Shale , Niobrara Formation , and Eagle Ford Formation . Accordingly, shale oil produced from oil shale should not be confused with tight oil, which
10366-456: The health hazard . Aviation, off-road motor vehicles, and racing car motors still use leaded gasolines. Interest in gasoline-like fuels started with the invention of internal combustion engines suitable for use in transportation applications. The so-called Otto engines were developed in Germany during the last quarter of the 19th century. The fuel for these early engines was a relatively volatile hydrocarbon obtained from coal gas . With
10512-402: The hydrogen , carbon , and oxygen content of oil shales' original organic matter. The most commonly used classification of oil shales, developed between 1987 and 1991 by Adrian C. Hutton, adapts petrographic terms from coal terminology. This classification designates oil shales as terrestrial, lacustrine (lake-bottom-deposited), or marine (ocean bottom-deposited), based on the environment of
10658-441: The room-and-pillar method . The extraction of the useful components of oil shale usually takes place above ground ( ex-situ processing), although several newer technologies perform this underground (on-site or in-situ processing). In either case, the chemical process of pyrolysis converts the kerogen in the oil shale to shale oil ( synthetic crude oil) and oil shale gas. Most conversion technologies involve heating shale in
10804-454: The 1960s and increasing reserves by the phenomenon of reserve growth. The report noted that increased reserves within a field may be discovered or developed by new technology years or decades after the original discovery. But because of the practice of "backdating", any new reserves within a field, even those to be discovered decades after the field discovery, are attributed to the year of initial field discovery, creating an illusion that discovery
10950-453: The 1960s at around 55 billion barrels (8.7 × 10 m) per year. More recently, 2021 was the worst year for oil and gas discoveries dating back to 1946. This is to be expected of a finite resource. But despite the fall-off in new field discoveries, the reported proved reserves of crude oil remaining in the ground in 2014, which totaled 1,490 billion barrels, were more than quadruple the 1965 proved reserves of 354 billion barrels. A researcher for
11096-585: The 1980s . On 2 May 1982, known in some circles as "Black Sunday", Exxon canceled its US$ 5 billion Colony Shale Oil Project near Parachute, Colorado , because of low oil prices and increased expenses, laying off more than 2,000 workers and leaving a trail of home foreclosures and small business bankruptcies. In 1986, President Ronald Reagan signed into law the Consolidated Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act of 1985 , which among other things abolished
11242-420: The 1990s and 2000s. However, appropriate refining processes equivalent to hydrocracking can transform shale oil into a lighter-range hydrocarbon ( gasoline ). The various attempts to develop oil shale deposits have succeeded only when the cost of shale-oil production in a given region comes in below the price of crude oil or its other substitutes ( break-even price ). According to a 2005 survey, conducted by
11388-522: The 19th century focused on the production of kerosene , lamp oil, and paraffin ; these products helped supply the growing demand for lighting that arose during the Industrial Revolution , supplied from Scottish oil shales. Fuel oil, lubricating oil and grease, and ammonium sulfate were also produced. Scottish production peaked in around 1913, operating 120 oil shale works, producing 3,332,000 tonnes of oil shale, generating around 2% of
11534-478: The EROI is felt through the cost of production. A higher EROI generally translates to a lower cost of production and higher (monetary) profits for the oil company, and a lower EROI generally translates to a higher cost of production and lower (monetary) profits for the oil company. A higher energy investment means physically using more materials (which require energy to produce) in order to produce energy. Oil sources with
11680-522: The EROI of the various known oil-shale deposits as varying between 0.7–13.3, although known oil-shale extraction development projects assert an EROI between 3 and 10. According to the World Energy Outlook 2010, the EROI of ex-situ processing is typically 4 to 5 while of in-situ processing it may be even as low as 2. However, according to the IEA most of used energy can be provided by burning
11826-496: The Estonian and Chinese oil-shale industries continued to grow after World War II , most other countries abandoned their projects because of high processing costs and the availability of cheaper petroleum. Following the 1973 oil crisis , world production of oil shale reached a peak of 46 million tonnes in 1980 before falling to about 16 million tonnes in 2000, because of competition from cheap conventional petroleum in
11972-629: The New Policies Scenario introduced in its World Energy Outlook 2010 , a price of $ 50 per tonne of emitted CO 2 adds additional $ 7.50 cost per barrel of shale oil. As of November 2021, the price of tonne of CO 2 exceeded $ 60. A 1972 publication in the journal Pétrole Informations ( ISSN 0755-561X ) compared shale-based oil production unfavorably with coal liquefaction . The article portrayed coal liquefaction as less expensive, generating more oil, and creating fewer environmental impacts than extraction from oil shale. It cited
12118-469: The OPEC quota system allows greater output for countries with greater reserves. As conventional oil becomes less available, it can be replaced with production of liquids from unconventional sources such as tight oil , oil sands , ultra-heavy oils, gas-to-liquid technologies, coal-to-liquid technologies, biofuel technologies, and shale oil . In the 2007 and subsequent International Energy Outlook editions,
12264-477: The Rolls-Royce Merlin 66 was developing 1,500 kilowatts (2,000 hp) using this fuel. Gasoline, when used in high- compression internal combustion engines, tends to auto-ignite or "detonate" causing damaging engine knocking (also called "pinging" or "pinking"). To address this problem, tetraethyl lead (TEL) was widely adopted as an additive for gasoline in the 1920s. With a growing awareness of
12410-692: The U.S., octane ratings in unleaded fuels vary between 85 and 87 AKI (91–92 RON) for regular, 89–90 AKI (94–95 RON) for mid-grade (equivalent to European regular), up to 90–94 AKI (95–99 RON) for premium (European premium). As South Africa's largest city, Johannesburg , is located on the Highveld at 1,753 meters (5,751 ft) above sea level, the Automobile Association of South Africa recommends 95-octane gasoline at low altitude and 93-octane for use in Johannesburg because "The higher
12556-529: The US due to a lack of infrastructure and less capacity to borrow money. In recent history, production of tight oil led to a resurgence of US production in the 2010s. US tight oil production initially peaked in March 2015 and fell by 12 per cent over the next 18 months; but then production rose again, and by September 2017 production had exceeded the old peak. As of 2024, US oil production, especially tight oil production,
12702-490: The United States' Synthetic Liquid Fuels Program . The global oil-shale industry began to revive at the beginning of the 21st century. In 2003, an oil-shale development program restarted in the United States. Authorities introduced a commercial leasing program permitting the extraction of oil shale and oil sands on federal lands in 2005, in accordance with the Energy Policy Act of 2005 . As of 2008 , oil shale
12848-736: The Younger) described a method of extraction of oil from "some kind of bituminous shale". The first patent for extracting oil from oil shale was British Crown Patent 330 granted in 1694 to Martin Eele, Thomas Hancock and William Portlock, who had "found a way to extract and make great quantities of pitch, tarr, and oyle out of a sort of stone". Modern industrial mining of oil shale began in 1837 in Autun , France, followed by exploitation in Scotland, Germany, and several other countries. Operations during
12994-432: The absence of oxygen to a temperature at which kerogen decomposes (pyrolyses) into gas, condensable oil, and a solid residue. This usually takes place between 450 °C (842 °F ) and 500 °C (932 °F ). The process of decomposition begins at relatively low temperatures (300 °C or 572 °F) but proceeds more rapidly and more completely at higher temperatures. In-situ processing involves heating
13140-410: The addition of 5–100 ppm of antioxidants , such as phenylenediamines and other amines . Hydrocarbons with a bromine number of 10 or above can be protected with the combination of unhindered or partially hindered phenols and oil-soluble strong amine bases, such as hindered phenols. "Stale" gasoline can be detected by a colorimetric enzymatic test for organic peroxides produced by oxidation of
13286-457: The altitude the lower the air pressure, and the lower the need for a high octane fuel as there is no real performance gain". Octane rating became important as the military sought higher output for aircraft engines in the late 1920s and the 1940s. A higher octane rating allows a higher compression ratio or supercharger boost, and thus higher temperatures and pressures, which translate to higher power output. Some scientists even predicted that
13432-901: The amount of recoverable kerogen. Although resources of oil shale occur in many countries, only 33 countries possess known deposits of potential economic value. Well-explored deposits, potentially classifiable as reserves, include the Green River deposits in the western United States , the Tertiary deposits in Queensland , Australia, deposits in Sweden and Estonia, the El-Lajjun deposit in Jordan, and deposits in France, Germany, Brazil, China, southern Mongolia and Russia. These deposits have given rise to expectations of yielding at least 40 liters of shale oil per tonne of oil shale, using
13578-588: The announcement "the end of one toxic era". However, leaded gasoline continues to be used in aeronautic, auto racing, and off-road applications. The use of leaded additives is still permitted worldwide for the formulation of some grades of aviation gasoline such as 100LL , because the required octane rating is difficult to reach without the use of leaded additives. Different additives have replaced lead compounds. The most popular additives include aromatic hydrocarbons , ethers ( MTBE and ETBE ), and alcohols , most commonly ethanol . Lead replacement petrol (LRP)
13724-518: The benchmark standard for crude oil in the futures-contract market, the Green River shale oil sulfur content ranges from near 0% to 4.9% (in average 0.76%), where West Texas Intermediate's sulfur content has a maximum of 0.42%. The sulfur content in shale oil from Jordan's oil shales may be as high as 9.5%. The arsenic content, for example, becomes an issue for Green River formation oil shale. The higher concentrations of these materials means that
13870-612: The buildup may or may not be eventually cleaned out by the flow of fresh gasoline. The addition of a fuel stabilizer to gasoline can extend the life of fuel that is not or cannot be stored properly, though removal of all fuel from a fuel system is the only real solution to the problem of long-term storage of an engine or a machine or vehicle. Typical fuel stabilizers are proprietary mixtures containing mineral spirits , isopropyl alcohol , 1,2,4-trimethylbenzene or other additives . Fuel stabilizers are commonly used for small engines, such as lawnmower and tractor engines, especially when their use
14016-463: The concept in a 1956 paper, predicting U.S. production would peak between 1965 and 1971, but his global peak oil predictions were premature because of improved drilling technology. Current forecasts for the year of peak oil range from 2028 to 2050. These estimates depend on future economic trends, technological advances, and efforts to mitigate climate change . Oil, or petroleum , is a mixture of hydrocarbon substances. By its very nature, what "oil"
14162-471: The cost of extraction. With rule changes by the SEC , oil companies can now book them as proven reserves after opening a strip mine or thermal facility for extraction . These unconventional sources are more labor and resource intensive to produce, however, requiring extra energy to refine, resulting in higher production costs and up to three times more greenhouse gas emissions per barrel (or barrel equivalent) on
14308-519: The early 2000s. Reduction in the average lead content of human blood may be a major cause for falling violent crime rates around the world including South Africa. A study found a correlation between leaded gasoline usage and violent crime (see Lead–crime hypothesis ). Other studies found no correlation. In August 2021, the UN Environment Programme announced that leaded petrol had been eradicated worldwide, with Algeria being
14454-418: The end of production for cars using leaded gasoline in member states. At this stage, a large percentage of cars from the 1980s and early 1990s which ran on leaded gasoline were still in use, along with cars that could run on unleaded fuel. However, the declining number of such cars on British roads saw many gasoline stations withdrawing LRP from sale by 2003. Methylcyclopentadienyl manganese tricarbonyl (MMT)
14600-439: The future, but at the same time they may cause other problems, including groundwater pollution . Among the water contaminants commonly associated with oil shale processing are oxygen and nitrogen heterocyclic hydrocarbons. Commonly detected examples include quinoline derivatives, pyridine , and various alkyl homologues of pyridine, such as picoline and lutidine . Water concerns are sensitive issues in arid regions, such as
14746-419: The gas) that can withstand the vapor pressure of the gasoline without venting (to prevent the loss of the more volatile fractions) at a stable cool temperature (to reduce the excess pressure from liquid expansion and to reduce the rate of any decomposition reactions). When gasoline is not stored correctly, gums and solids may result, which can corrode system components and accumulate on wet surfaces, resulting in
14892-653: The gasoline. Gasolines are also treated with metal deactivators , which are compounds that sequester (deactivate) metal salts that otherwise accelerate the formation of gummy residues. The metal impurities might arise from the engine itself or as contaminants in the fuel. Gasoline, as delivered at the pump, also contains additives to reduce internal engine carbon buildups, improve combustion and allow easier starting in cold climates. High levels of detergent can be found in Top Tier Detergent Gasolines . The specification for Top Tier Detergent Gasolines
15038-554: The general public. Oil shale Oil shale is an organic-rich fine-grained sedimentary rock containing kerogen (a solid mixture of organic chemical compounds ) from which liquid hydrocarbons can be produced. In addition to kerogen, general composition of oil shales constitutes inorganic substance and bitumens . Based on their deposition environment, oil shales are classified as marine, lacustrine and terrestrial oil shales. Oil shales differ from oil- bearing shales, shale deposits that contain petroleum ( tight oil ) that
15184-479: The global production of petroleum. The Scottish oil-shale industry expanded immediately before World War I partly because of limited access to conventional petroleum resources and the mass production of automobiles and trucks, which accompanied an increase in gasoline consumption; but mostly because the British Admiralty required a reliable fuel source for their fleet as war in Europe loomed. Although
15330-762: The initial biomass deposit. Known oil shales are predominantly of aquatic (marine, lacustrine) origin. Hutton's classification scheme has proven useful in estimating the yield and composition of the extracted oil. As source rocks for most conventional oil reservoirs , oil shale deposits are found in all world oil provinces, although most of them are too deep to be exploited economically. As with all oil and gas resources, analysts distinguish between oil shale resources and oil shale reserves. "Resources" refer to all oil shale deposits, while "reserves" represent those deposits from which producers can extract oil shale economically using existing technology. Since extraction technologies develop continuously, planners can only estimate
15476-486: The key issue is the economic viability of extraction at current prices. Initially, it was believed that oil production would decline due to reserve depletion, but a new theory suggests that reduced oil demand could lower prices, impacting extraction costs. Demand may also decline due to persistent high prices. Over the last century, many predictions of peak oil timing have been made, often later proven incorrect due to increased extraction rates. M. King Hubbert introduced
15622-400: The last country to deplete its reserves. UN Secretary-General António Guterres called the eradication of leaded petrol an "international success story". He also added: "Ending the use of leaded petrol will prevent more than one million premature deaths each year from heart disease, strokes and cancer, and it will protect children whose IQs are damaged by exposure to lead". Greenpeace called
15768-430: The net energy of oil production. Regarding energy production, what also matters is the "Energy Return on Investment" (EROI) . To put it simply, in order to produce energy one must also invest some energy, and the EROI is the return on investment in energy terms. With regards to conventional and unconventional oil, it is recognized that conventional oil offers a much higher EROI than unconventional sources of oil. In reality,
15914-446: The oil companies, the producer states and the consumer states. All three have reasons to overstate their proven reserves: oil companies may look to increase their potential worth; producer countries gain a stronger international stature ; and governments of consumer countries may seek a means to foster sentiments of security and stability within their economies and among consumers. Major discrepancies arise from accuracy issues with
16060-425: The oil must undergo considerable upgrading ( hydrotreating ) before serving as oil-refinery feedstock. Above-ground retorting processes tended to yield a lower API gravity shale oil than the in situ processes. Shale oil serves best for producing middle- distillates such as kerosene , jet fuel , and diesel fuel . Worldwide demand for these middle distillates, particularly for diesel fuels, increased rapidly in
16206-399: The oil shale industry. In one result, Queensland Energy Resources put the proposed Stuart Oil Shale Project in Australia on hold in 2004. Some comets contain massive amounts of an organic material almost identical to high grade oil shale, the equivalent of cubic kilometers of such mixed with other material; for instance, corresponding hydrocarbons were detected in a probe fly-by through
16352-428: The oil shale underground. Such technologies can potentially extract more oil from a given area of land than ex-situ processes, since they can access the material at greater depths than surface mines can. Several companies have patented methods for in-situ retorting . However, most of these methods remain in the experimental phase. Two in-situ processes could be used: true in-situ processing does not involve mining
16498-502: The oil shale, while modified in-situ processing involves removing part of the oil shale and bringing it to the surface for modified in-situ retorting in order to create permeability for gas flow in a rubble chimney. Explosives rubblize the oil-shale deposit. Hundreds of patents for oil shale retorting technologies exist; however, only a few dozen have undergone testing. By 2006, only four technologies remained in commercial use: Kiviter , Galoter , Fushun , and Petrosix . Oil shale
16644-406: The older gasoline may be used up. If left undiluted, improper operation will occur and this may include engine damage from misfiring or the lack of proper action of the fuel within a fuel injection system and from an onboard computer attempting to compensate (if applicable to the vehicle). Gasoline should ideally be stored in an airtight container (to prevent oxidation or water vapor mixing in with
16790-455: The oxidation of alkenes and other minor components in gasoline (see drying oils ). Improvements in refinery techniques have generally reduced the susceptibility of gasolines to these problems. Previously, catalytically or thermally cracked gasolines were most susceptible to oxidation. The formation of gums is accelerated by copper salts, which can be neutralized by additives called metal deactivators . This degradation can be prevented through
16936-440: The past run power plants fired by oil shale but have shut them down or switched to other fuel sources such as natural gas . Other countries, such as Egypt, have had plans to construct power plants fired by oil shale, while Canada and Turkey had plans to burn oil shale along with coal for power generation. Oil shale serves as the main fuel for power generation only in Estonia, where 90.3% of country's electrical generation in 2016
17082-454: The phaseout of leaded motor fuels in the United Kingdom, Australia , South Africa , and some other countries. Consumer confusion led to a widespread mistaken preference for LRP rather than unleaded, and LRP was phased out 8 to 10 years after the introduction of unleaded. Leaded gasoline was withdrawn from sale in Britain after 31 December 1999, seven years after EEC regulations signaled
17228-431: The price of crude oil would need to remain above these levels. The analysis also discussed the expectation that processing costs would drop after the establishment of the complex. The hypothetical unit would see a cost reduction of 35–70% after producing its first 500 million barrels (79 million cubic metres). Assuming an increase in output of 25 thousand barrels per day (4.0 × 10 ^ m /d) during each year after
17374-653: The production of particulates during processing, transport, and support activities. Oil-shale extraction can damage the biological and recreational value of land and the ecosystem in the mining area. Combustion and thermal processing generate waste material. In addition, the atmospheric emissions from oil shale processing and combustion include carbon dioxide , a greenhouse gas . Environmentalists oppose production and usage of oil shale, as it creates even more greenhouse gases than conventional fossil fuels. Experimental in situ conversion processes and carbon capture and storage technologies may reduce some of these concerns in
17520-453: The production profile of a typical oil well is that first production increases, then it plateaus, and then it declines. This is the underlying assumption of the Hubbert peak theory . The chart to the right shows the decline of Alaskan oil production since after the 1980s, which is reflective of a typical pattern of decline among most oilfields. Meanwhile, unconventional oil production follows
17666-513: The proliferation of vehicles powered by internal combustion engines . Transportation is therefore of particular interest to those seeking to mitigate the effects of peak oil. As of 2023, it is forecasted by the IEA that 90% of global oil demand growth will come from the Asia-Pacific region. As of 2022, China and India are the second and third largest oil consumers globally. The United States
17812-634: The ratio of organic matter to mineral matter lies approximately between 0.75:5 and 1.5:5. At the same time, the organic matter in oil shale has an atomic ratio of hydrogen to carbon (H/C) approximately 1.2 to 1.8 times lower than for crude oil and about 1.5 to 3 times higher than for coals. The organic components of oil shale derive from a variety of organisms, such as the remains of algae , spores , pollen , plant cuticles and corky fragments of herbaceous and woody plants, and cellular debris from other aquatic and land plants. Some deposits contain significant fossils ; Germany's Messel Pit has
17958-628: The recoverable reserves of the Orinoco Belt range from 100 billion barrels (16 × 10 ^ m) to 270 billion barrels (43 × 10 ^ m). In 2009, USGS updated this value to 513 billion barrels (8.16 × 10 m). While not an actual source of unconventional oil, processes which convert other hydrocarbons into liquid fuels deserve an honorable mention, as similar to unconventional oil they are 'unconventional' and very costly to produce. They include coal liquefaction or gas to liquids which produce synthetic fuels from coal or natural gas via
18104-427: The refinery). On average, U.S. petroleum refineries produce about 19 to 20 gallons of gasoline, 11 to 13 gallons of distillate fuel diesel fuel and 3 to 4 gallons of jet fuel from each 42 gallon (152 liters) barrel of crude oil. The product ratio depends upon the processing in an oil refinery and the crude oil assay . The specific gravity of gasoline ranges from 0.71 to 0.77, with higher densities having
18250-502: The same thing. Using "total liquids" production to refer to "crude oil" production is misleading, the extra liquids included in "total liquids" production do not refine into the same products. It can be misleading as it could be used to inflate the actual amount of crude oil being produced globally. Where oil may come from is commonly divided into two categories, "conventional" oil sources and "unconventional" oil sources. The terms are not strictly defined, and may vary within literature. As
18396-445: The season and producer by up to 1.75 percent more or less than the average. On average, about 74 liters (20 U.S. gal) of gasoline are available from a barrel of crude oil (about 46 percent by volume), varying with the quality of the crude and the grade of the gasoline. The remainder is products ranging from tar to naphtha . A high-octane-rated fuel, such as liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), has an overall lower power output at
18542-593: The self-reported numbers from the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC). Besides the possibility that these nations have overstated their reserves for political reasons (during periods of no substantial discoveries), over 70 nations also follow a practice of not reducing their reserves to account for yearly production. Analysts have suggested that OPEC member nations have economic incentives to exaggerate their reserves, as
18688-701: The seriousness of the extent of environmental and health damage caused by lead compounds, however, and the incompatibility of lead with catalytic converters , governments began to mandate reductions in gasoline lead. In the U.S., the Environmental Protection Agency issued regulations to reduce the lead content of leaded gasoline over a series of annual phases, scheduled to begin in 1973 but delayed by court appeals until 1976. By 1995, leaded fuel accounted for only 0.6 percent of total gasoline sales and under 1,800 metric tons (2,000 short tons; 1,800 long tons) of lead per year. From 1 January 1996,
18834-409: The shale is burned directly to generate electricity or undertakes further processing. The most common methods of mining involve open-pit mining and strip mining . These procedures remove most of the overlying material to expose the deposits of oil shale and become practical when the deposits occur near the surface. Underground mining of oil shale , which removes less of the overlying material, employs
18980-553: The spent shale or oil-shale gas. To increase efficiency when retorting oil shale, researchers have proposed and tested several co-pyrolysis processes. Mining oil shale involves numerous environmental impacts, more pronounced in surface mining than in underground mining. These include acid drainage induced by the sudden rapid exposure and subsequent oxidation of formerly buried materials; the introduction of metals including mercury into surface-water and groundwater; increased erosion , sulfur-gas emissions; and air pollution caused by
19126-455: The standard ASTM D4814. This standard describes the various characteristics and requirements of automotive fuels for use over a wide range of operating conditions in ground vehicles equipped with spark-ignition engines. A gasoline-fueled internal combustion engine obtains energy from the combustion of gasoline's various hydrocarbons with oxygen from the ambient air, yielding carbon dioxide and water as exhaust. The combustion of octane ,
19272-630: The start of commercial production, RAND predicted the costs would decline to $ 35–48 per barrel ($ 220–300/m ) within 12 years. After achieving the milestone of 1 billion barrels (160 million cubic metres), its costs would decline further to $ 30–40 per barrel ($ 190–250/m ). In 2010, the International Energy Agency estimated, based on the various pilot projects, that investment and operating costs would be similar to those of Canadian oil sands , that means would be economic at prices above $ 60 per barrel at current costs. This figure does not account carbon pricing , which will add additional cost. According to
19418-402: The status of a UNESCO World Heritage Site . The mineral matter in oil shale includes various fine-grained silicates and carbonates . Inorganic matrix can contain quartz , feldspar , clay (mainly illite and chlorite ), carbonate ( calcite and dolomite ), pyrite and some other minerals. Another classification, known as the van Krevelen diagram, assigns kerogen types, depending on
19564-773: The strict sense. According to the petrologist Adrian C. Hutton of the University of Wollongong , oil shales are not "geological nor geochemically distinctive rock but rather 'economic' term". Their common defining feature is low solubility in low-boiling organic solvents and generation of liquid organic products on thermal decomposition . Geologists can classify oil shales on the basis of their composition as carbonate -rich shales, siliceous shales, or cannel shales. Oil shale differs from bitumen-impregnated rocks (other so-called unconventional resources such as oil sands and petroleum reservoir rocks), humic coals and carbonaceous shale. While oil sands do originate from
19710-427: The surface or can be extracted by simply pumping it out of the ground. Heavy refers to oil that has higher density and lower API gravity . It does not flow as easily, and its consistency can be similar to that of molasses. While some of it can be produced using conventional techniques, recovery rates are better using unconventional methods. Generally, especially with regards to peak oil, the primary concern regards what
19856-408: The typical 10:1 compression ratio of an engine design optimized for gasoline fuel. An engine tuned for LPG fuel via higher compression ratios (typically 12:1) improves the power output. This is because higher-octane fuels allow for a higher compression ratio without knocking, resulting in a higher cylinder temperature, which improves efficiency . Also, increased mechanical efficiency is created by
20002-406: The ultimately recoverable oil remained. More recently, "peak oil demand" has become a more popular interpretation of peak oil. The International International Energy Agency (IEA) argues that the world will first intentionally reduce oil demand before supply issues actually become a problem, as to address climate change and greenhouse gas emissions . Unlike peak oil demand, peak oil generally
20148-510: The varying actual percentage. In parts of the U.S., ethanol is sometimes added to gasoline without an indication that it is a component. In October 2007, the Government of India decided to make five percent ethanol blending (with gasoline) mandatory. Currently, 10 percent ethanol blended product (E10) is being sold in various parts of the country. Ethanol has been found in at least one study to damage catalytic converters. Though gasoline
20294-739: The western U.S. and Israel's Negev Desert , where plans exist to expand oil-shale extraction despite a water shortage. Depending on technology, above-ground retorting uses between one and five barrels of water per barrel of produced shale-oil. A 2008 programmatic environmental impact statement issued by the U.S. Bureau of Land Management stated that surface mining and retort operations produce 2 to 10 U.S. gallons (7.6 to 37.9 L; 1.7 to 8.3 imp gal) of waste water per 1 short ton (0.91 t) of processed oil shale. In situ processing, according to one estimate, uses about one-tenth as much water. Environmental activists, including members of Greenpeace , have organized strong protests against
20440-577: The word "Oil" was replaced with "Liquids" in the chart of world energy consumption . In 2009 biofuels was included in "Liquids" instead of in "Renewables". The inclusion of natural gas liquids, a bi-product of natural gas extraction, in "Liquids" has been criticized as it is mostly a chemical feedstock which is generally not used as transport fuel. Reserve estimates are based on profitability, which depends on both oil price and cost of production. Hence, unconventional sources such as heavy crude oil, oil sands, and oil shale may be included as new techniques reduce
20586-491: The world occur in the United States in the Green River Formation, which covers portions of Colorado , Utah , and Wyoming ; about 70% of this resource lies on land owned or managed by the United States federal government. Deposits in the United States constitute more than 80% of world resources; other significant resource holders being China, Russia, and Brazil. The amount of economically recoverable oil shale
20732-421: The world's 1,200 billion barrels (190 × 10 ^ m) of proven reserves should be recategorized as speculative resources. One difficulty in forecasting the date of peak oil is the opacity surrounding the oil reserves classified as "proven". In many major producing countries, the majority of reserves claims have not been subject to outside audit or examination. For the most part, proven reserves are stated by
20878-633: Was developed by four automakers: GM , Honda , Toyota , and BMW . According to the bulletin, the minimal U.S. EPA requirement is not sufficient to keep engines clean. Typical detergents include alkylamines and alkyl phosphates at a level of 50–100 ppm. In the EU, 5 percent ethanol can be added within the common gasoline spec (EN 228). Discussions are ongoing to allow 10 percent blending of ethanol (available in Finnish, French and German gasoline stations). In Finland, most gasoline stations sell 95E10, which
21024-402: Was developed for vehicles designed to run on leaded fuels and incompatible with unleaded fuels. Rather than tetraethyllead, it contains other metals such as potassium compounds or methylcyclopentadienyl manganese tricarbonyl (MMT); these are purported to buffer soft exhaust valves and seats so that they do not suffer recession due to the use of unleaded fuel. LRP was marketed during and after
21170-478: Was dropped on 6 May 2006 because the industry had developed VOC -controlled RFG that did not need additional oxygen. MTBE was phased out in the U.S. due to groundwater contamination and the resulting regulations and lawsuits. Ethanol and, to a lesser extent, ethanol-derived ETBE are common substitutes. A common ethanol-gasoline mix of 10 percent ethanol mixed with gasoline is called gasohol or E10, and an ethanol-gasoline mix of 85 percent ethanol mixed with gasoline
21316-659: Was produced from oil shale. According to the World Energy Council , in 2008 the total production of shale oil from oil shale was 930,000 tonnes, equal to 17,700 barrels per day (2,810 m /d), of which China produced 375,000 tonnes, Estonia 355,000 tonnes, and Brazil 200,000 tonnes. In comparison, production of the conventional oil and natural gas liquids in 2008 amounted 3.95 billion tonnes or 82.1 million barrels per day (13.1 × 10 ^ m /d). Most exploitation of oil shale involves mining followed by shipping elsewhere, after which
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