A warhead is the section of a device that contains the explosive agent or toxic (biological, chemical, or nuclear) material that is delivered by a missile , rocket , torpedo , or bomb .
96-879: The Pershing II Weapon System was a solid-fueled two-stage medium-range ballistic missile designed and built by Martin Marietta to replace the Pershing 1a Field Artillery Missile System as the United States Army 's primary nuclear-capable theater-level weapon. The U.S. Army replaced the Pershing 1a with the Pershing II Weapon System in 1983, while the German Air Force retained Pershing 1a until all Pershings were eliminated in 1991. The U.S. Army Missile Command (MICOM) managed
192-454: A 256 by 256 array. The reference scene resolution necessary to correspond to the decreasing altitude of the RV was effected by placing four reference data arrays in memory, each representing a given altitude band. This correlation process was performed several times during each of four altitude bands and continued to update the inertial guidance system until just before the impact. If for some reason
288-716: A Future of Peace and Justice was formed in 1983 to protest the deployment. In 1983, protesters went to court to stop the Pershing II deployment as a violation of Article 26(1) of the Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany , which prohibited West Germany from preparing for an offensive war. The Federal Constitutional Court rejected these claims. Again in Bonn in October 1983, as many as 500,000 people protested
384-413: A casing, nozzle , grain ( propellant charge ), and igniter . The solid grain mass burns in a predictable fashion to produce exhaust gases, the flow of which is described by Taylor–Culick flow . The nozzle dimensions are calculated to maintain a design chamber pressure, while producing thrust from the exhaust gases. Once ignited, a simple solid rocket motor cannot be shut off, as it contains all
480-487: A control moment. For example, the Titan III C solid boosters injected nitrogen tetroxide for LITV; the tanks can be seen on the sides of the rocket between the main center stage and the boosters. An early Minuteman first stage used a single motor with four gimballed nozzles to provide pitch, yaw, and roll control. A typical, well-designed ammonium perchlorate composite propellant (APCP) first-stage motor may have
576-627: A fence in Schwäbisch Gmünd and damaged a truck. On 22 April 1984, eight Plowshare activists associated entered the Martin Marietta Aerospace plant in Orlando, Florida where they damaged Pershing II components and a Patriot missile launcher and poured containers of their own blood on equipment. Four Plowshare activists entered the missile storage area (MSA) at Schwäbisch Gmünd, West Germany on 12 December 1986 and damaged
672-541: A high-energy (yet unstable) monopropellant and the other acts as a lower-energy stabilizing (and gelling) monopropellant. In typical circumstances, nitroglycerin is dissolved in a nitrocellulose gel and solidified with additives. DB propellants are implemented in applications where minimal smoke is required yet a medium-high I sp of roughly 235 s (2.30 km/s) is required. The addition of metal fuels (such as aluminium ) can increase performance to around 250 s (2.5 km/s), though metal oxide nucleation in
768-564: A long history as the final boost stage for satellites due to their simplicity, reliability, compactness and reasonably high mass fraction . A spin-stabilized solid rocket motor is sometimes added when extra velocity is required, such as for a mission to a comet or the outer solar system, because a spinner does not require a guidance system (on the newly added stage). Thiokol's extensive family of mostly titanium-cased Star space motors has been widely used, especially on Delta launch vehicles and as spin-stabilized upper stages to launch satellites from
864-499: A loss in motor performance. Polyurethane-bound aluminium-APCP solid fuel was used in the submarine-launched Polaris missiles . APCP used in the space shuttle Solid Rocket Boosters consisted of ammonium perchlorate (oxidizer, 69.6% by weight), aluminium (fuel, 16%), iron oxide (a catalyst, 0.4%), polybutadiene acrylonitrile (PBAN) polymer (a non-urethane rubber binder that held the mixture together and acted as secondary fuel, 12.04%), and an epoxy curing agent (1.96%). It developed
960-594: A propellant mass fraction of 92.23% while the 14,000-kilogram (31,000 lb) Castor 30 upper stage developed for Orbital Science's Taurus II COTS (Commercial Off The Shelf) (International Space Station resupply) launch vehicle has a 91.3% propellant fraction with 2.9% graphite epoxy motor casing, 2.4% nozzle, igniter and thrust vector actuator, and 3.4% non-motor hardware including such things as payload mount, interstage adapter, cable raceway, instrumentation, etc. Castor 120 and Castor 30 are 2.36 and 2.34 meters (93 and 92 in) in diameter, respectively, and serve as stages on
1056-895: A range of 5,500 metres (3.4 mi). By the end of World War II total production of rocket launchers reached about 10,000. with 12 million rockets of the RS type produced for the Soviet armed forces. In the United States modern castable composite solid rocket motors were invented by the American aerospace engineer Jack Parsons at Caltech in 1942 when he replaced double base propellant with roofing asphalt and potassium perchlorate . This made possible slow-burning rocket motors of adequate size and with sufficient shelf-life for jet-assisted take off applications. Charles Bartley , employed at JPL (Caltech), substituted curable synthetic rubber for
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#17327723978351152-772: A sculpture called Good Defeats Evil , a 39-foot (12 m), 40- short-ton (36,000 kg ) monumental bronze statue of Saint George fighting the dragon of nuclear war, with the dragon being made from sections of the Pershing II and SS-20 missiles. The sculpture was donated to the United Nations by the Soviet Union in 1990 and is located on the grounds of the United Nations Headquarters in New York City. In 1991, Leonard Cheshire 's World Memorial Fund for Disaster Relief sold badges of
1248-630: A security review conducted after the January 1985 explosion found the missiles "extremely vulnerable" to terrorist attacks and requested funds to secure the missiles in concrete sheds. The Plowshares movement was active in actions against the deployment. 14 July 1983, Plowshare activists entered the Avco plant in Wilmington, Massachusetts and damaged equipment related to Pershing II and MX missiles. On 4 December 1983, four Plowshare activists cut through
1344-492: A simple, solid-propellant rocket tube that was filled with gunpowder. One open end allowed the gas to escape and was attached to a long stick that acted as a guidance system for flight direction control. The first rockets with tubes of cast iron were used by the Kingdom of Mysore under Hyder Ali and Tipu Sultan in the 1750s. These rockets had a reach of targets up to a mile and a half away. These were extremely effective in
1440-414: A single-piece nozzle or 304 s (2.98 km/s) with a high-area-ratio telescoping nozzle. Aluminium is used as fuel because it has a reasonable specific energy density, a high volumetric energy density, and is difficult to ignite accidentally. Composite propellants are cast, and retain their shape after the rubber binder, such as Hydroxyl-terminated polybutadiene (HTPB), cross-links (solidifies) with
1536-943: A small charge that is set off when the propellant is exhausted after a time delay. This charge can be used to trigger a camera , or deploy a parachute . Without this charge and delay, the motor may ignite a second stage (black powder only). In mid- and high-power rocketry , commercially made APCP motors are widely used. They can be designed as either single-use or reloadables. These motors are available in impulse ranges from "A" (1.26 Ns– 2.50 Ns) to "O" (20.48 kNs – 40.96 kNs), from several manufacturers. They are manufactured in standardized diameters and varying lengths depending on required impulse. Standard motor diameters are 13, 18, 24, 29, 38, 54, 75, 98, and 150 millimeters. Different propellant formulations are available to produce different thrust profiles, as well as special effects such as colored flames, smoke trails, or large quantities of sparks (produced by adding titanium sponge to
1632-406: A specific impulse of 242 seconds (2.37 km/s) at sea level or 268 seconds (2.63 km/s) in a vacuum. The 2005-2009 Constellation Program was to use a similar PBAN-bound APCP. In 2009, a group succeeded in creating a propellant of water and nanoaluminium ( ALICE ). Typical HEC propellants start with a standard composite propellant mixture (such as APCP) and add a high-energy explosive to
1728-466: A sugar fuel (typically dextrose , sorbitol , or sucrose ) that are cast into shape by gently melting the propellant constituents together and pouring or packing the amorphous colloid into a mold. Candy propellants generate a low-medium specific impulse of roughly 130 s (1.3 km/s) and, thus, are used primarily by amateur and experimental rocketeers. DB propellants are composed of two monopropellant fuel components where one typically acts as
1824-684: A vacuum specific impulse ( I sp ) as high as 285.6 seconds (2.801 km/s) (Titan IVB SRMU). This compares to 339.3 s (3.327 km/s) for RP1/LOX (RD-180) and 452.3 s (4.436 km/s) for LH 2 /LOX (Block II RS-25 ) bipropellant engines. Upper stage specific impulses are somewhat greater: as much as 303.8 s (2.979 km/s) for APCP (Orbus 6E), 359 s (3.52 km/s) for RP1/LOX (RD-0124) and 465.5 s (4.565 km/s) for LH 2 /LOX (RL10B-2). Propellant fractions are usually somewhat higher for (non-segmented) solid propellant first stages than for upper stages. The 53,000-kilogram (117,000 lb) Castor 120 first stage has
1920-619: A very primitive form of solid-propellant rocket. Illustrations and descriptions in the 14th century Chinese military treatise Huolongjing by the Ming dynasty military writer and philosopher Jiao Yu confirm that the Chinese in 1232 used proto solid propellant rockets then known as " fire arrows " to drive back the Mongols during the Mongol siege of Kaifeng . Each arrow took a primitive form of
2016-412: Is a rocket with a rocket engine that uses solid propellants ( fuel / oxidizer ). The earliest rockets were solid-fuel rockets powered by gunpowder . The inception of gunpowder rockets in warfare can be credited to the ancient Chinese, and in the 13th century, the Mongols played a pivotal role in facilitating their westward adoption. All rockets used some form of solid or powdered propellant until
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#17327723978352112-492: Is another pressed propellant that does not find any practical application outside specialized amateur rocketry circles due to its poor performance (as most ZS burns outside the combustion chamber) and fast linear burn rates on the order of 2 m/s. ZS is most often employed as a novelty propellant as the rocket accelerates extremely quickly leaving a spectacular large orange fireball behind it. In general, rocket candy propellants are an oxidizer (typically potassium nitrate) and
2208-552: Is cheap and fairly easy to produce. The fuel grain is typically a mixture of pressed fine powder (into a solid, hard slug), with a burn rate that is highly dependent upon exact composition and operating conditions. The specific impulse of black powder is low, around 80 s (0.78 km/s). The grain is sensitive to fracture and, therefore, catastrophic failure. Black powder does not typically find use in motors above 40 newtons (9.0 pounds-force) thrust. Composed of powdered zinc metal and powdered sulfur (oxidizer), ZS or "micrograin"
2304-408: Is equal to the volumetric rate times the fuel density ρ {\displaystyle \rho } : Several geometric configurations are often used depending on the application and desired thrust curve : The casing may be constructed from a range of materials. Cardboard is used for small black powder model motors, whereas aluminium is used for larger composite-fuel hobby motors. Steel
2400-428: Is non-polluting: acid-free, solid particulates-free, and lead-free. It is also smokeless and has only a faint shock diamond pattern that is visible in the otherwise transparent exhaust. Without the bright flame and dense smoke trail produced by the burning of aluminized propellants, these smokeless propellants all but eliminate the risk of giving away the positions from which the missiles are fired. The new CL-20 propellant
2496-699: Is now on display in the Smithsonian Institution 's National Air and Space Museum in Washington, D.C., alongside a Soviet SS-20 missile. Another is at the Central Armed Forces Museum in Moscow, Russia, also with an SS-20. A number of inert Pershing 1 and Pershing 1a missiles are displayed in the U.S. and Germany. Scrap material from the Pershing II and SS-20 missiles was used in several projects. Zurab Tsereteli created
2592-411: Is shock-insensitive (hazard class 1.3) as opposed to current HMX smokeless propellants which are highly detonable (hazard class 1.1). CL-20 is considered a major breakthrough in solid rocket propellant technology but has yet to see widespread use because costs remain high. Electric solid propellants (ESPs) are a family of high performance plastisol solid propellants that can be ignited and throttled by
2688-434: Is to achieve mid-course exo-atmospheric ABM capability from missiles small enough to fit in existing ship-based below-deck vertical launch tubes and air-mobile truck-mounted launch tubes. CL-20 propellant compliant with Congress' 2004 insensitive munitions (IM) law has been demonstrated and may, as its cost comes down, be suitable for use in commercial launch vehicles, with a very significant increase in performance compared with
2784-557: The 2nd Battalion, 4th Infantry Regiment , who had performed the security for the Pershing systems formed a subchapter known as the Pershing Tower Rats. The two German Air Force missile squadrons also formed veterans groups known as the Flugkörpergeschwader 1 eV. [REDACTED] Media related to MGM-31 Pershing at Wikimedia Commons Solid-fuel rocket A solid-propellant rocket or solid rocket
2880-664: The Battle of Khalkhin Gol . In June 1938, the RNII began developing a multiple rocket launcher based on the RS-132 rocket. In August 1939, the completed product was the BM-13 / Katyusha rocket launcher . Towards the end of 1938 the first significant large scale testing of the rocket launchers took place, 233 rockets of various types were used. A salvo of rockets could completely straddle a target at
2976-632: The LGM-118 Peacekeeper . Pershing III is also a proposal for a coast-based missile system to counter the Chinese DF-21D anti-ship ballistic missile. [REDACTED] United States: United States Army The Pershing systems were eliminated after the ratification of the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty on 27 May 1988. The missiles began to be withdrawn in October 1988 and
Pershing II - Misplaced Pages Continue
3072-538: The RSD-10 Pioneer (NATO designation SS-20 Saber) in 1976. Since the first version of the RSD-10 had a range of 2,700 miles (4,300 km) and two warheads, the Pershing II requirement was changed to increase the range to 900 miles (1,400 km), giving the ability to reach targets in eastern Ukraine , Belarus or Lithuania . The NATO Double-Track Decision was made to deploy both the medium-range Pershing and
3168-668: The Reactive Scientific Research Institute (RNII) with the development of the RS-82 and RS-132 rockets , including designing several variations for ground-to-air, ground-to-ground, air-to-ground and air-to-air combat. The earliest known use by the Soviet Air Force of aircraft-launched unguided anti-aircraft rockets in combat against heavier-than-air aircraft took place in August 1939 , during
3264-788: The Second Anglo-Mysore War that ended in a humiliating defeat for the British East India Company . Word of the success of the Mysore rockets against the British triggered research in England, France, Ireland and elsewhere. When the British finally conquered the fort of Srirangapatana in 1799, hundreds of rockets were shipped off to the Royal Arsenal near London to be reverse-engineered. This led to
3360-500: The fuel and oxidizer mass. Grain geometry and chemistry are then chosen to satisfy the required motor characteristics. The following are chosen or solved simultaneously. The results are exact dimensions for grain, nozzle, and case geometries: The grain may or may not be bonded to the casing. Case-bonded motors are more difficult to design, since the deformation of the case and the grain under flight must be compatible. Common modes of failure in solid rocket motors include fracture of
3456-582: The 2010s include the European Ariane 5 , US Atlas V and Space Shuttle , and Japan's H-II . The largest solid rocket motors ever built were Aerojet's three 6.60-meter (260 in) monolithic solid motors cast in Florida. Motors 260 SL-1 and SL-2 were 6.63 meters (261 in) in diameter, 24.59 meters (80 ft 8 in) long, weighed 842,900 kilograms (1,858,300 lb), and had a maximum thrust of 16 MN (3,500,000 lbf). Burn duration
3552-1119: The 20th century, when liquid-propellant rockets offered more efficient and controllable alternatives. Because of their simplicity and reliability, solid rockets are still used today in military armaments worldwide, model rockets , solid rocket boosters and on larger applications. Since solid-fuel rockets can remain in storage for an extended period without much propellant degradation, and since they almost always launch reliably, they have been frequently used in military applications such as missiles . The lower performance of solid propellants (as compared to liquids) does not favor their use as primary propulsion in modern medium-to-large launch vehicles customarily used for commercial satellites and major space probes. Solids are, however, frequently used as strap-on boosters to increase payload capacity or as spin-stabilized add-on upper stages when higher-than-normal velocities are required. Solid rockets are used as light launch vehicles for low Earth orbit (LEO) payloads under 2 tons or escape payloads up to 500 kilograms (1,100 lb). A simple solid rocket motor consists of
3648-667: The Athena IC and IIC commercial launch vehicles. A four-stage Athena II using Castor 120s as both first and second stages became the first commercially developed launch vehicle to launch a lunar probe ( Lunar Prospector ) in 1998. Solid rockets can provide high thrust for relatively low cost. For this reason, solids have been used as initial stages in rockets (for example the Space Shuttle ), while reserving high specific impulse engines, especially less massive hydrogen-fueled engines, for higher stages. In addition, solid rockets have
3744-527: The CAS site near Heilbronn . The fire occurred while removing a missile stage from the storage container during an assembly operation. An investigation revealed that the Kevlar rocket bottle had accumulated a triboelectric charge in the cold dry weather; as the motor was removed from the container, the electrical charge began to flow and created a hot spot that ignited the propellant. A moratorium on missile movement
3840-522: The G&;C manufactured splice. A protective collar on the outer surface of the adapter, mounted over the linear shaped charge, provided personnel protection during G&C/A handling operations. The G&C portion contained two guidance systems. The Singer-Kearfott inertial navigation system that provided guidance through the terminal phase. The primary terminal guidance system was a Goodyear Aerospace active radar guidance system. Using radar maps of
3936-451: The G&C. The aft end of the first stage had two tail plugs that connected to the GIEU. The reentry vehicle (RV) was structurally and functionally divided into three sections: the radar section (RS), the warhead section (WHS), and the guidance and control /adapter (G&C/A) section. The guidance and control/adapter (G&C/A) section consisted of two separate portions, the G&C and
Pershing II - Misplaced Pages Continue
4032-639: The Pershing 1a M790 launchers were modified into the Pershing II M1003 launchers. The functions of the vehicle-mounted programmer test station needed for the older systems were consolidated into the Launch Control Assembly (LCA) in the Ground Integrated Electronics Unit (GIEU) on the side of the launcher. The warhead and radar sections were carried as an assembly on a pallet that rotated to mate with
4128-477: The Pershing II RV was radar area correlation, using a Goodyear Aerospace active radar homing system. This technique compared live radar video return to pre-stored reference scenes of the target area and determined RV position errors with respect to its trajectory and target location. These position errors updated the inertial guidance system, which in turn sent commands to the vane control system to guide
4224-498: The Pershing systems. In 2004, the Pershing Professionals Association was incorporated to meet the long-term goals—to preserve, interpret and encourage interest in the history of the Pershing missile systems and the soldiers who served, and to make such information accessible to present and future generations to foster a deeper appreciation of the role that Pershing played in world history. Veterans of
4320-450: The RV to the target. At a predetermined altitude, the radar unit activated to provide altitude update data and begin scanning the target area. The analog radar video return was digitized into two-bit pixels by the correlator unit and was formatted into a 128 by 128 array. The target reference scene data, loaded prior to launch via the ground and missile data links, were also encoded as two-bit pixels and placed in reference memory formatted in
4416-498: The U.S. and the U.S.S.R. signed the INF Treaty, thus the Pershing 1b was never deployed. The single-stage missile was used for launches from White Sands Missile Range due to range limitations. Pershing II Reduced Range (RR) was a follow-on concept that would have modified the launchers to hold two single-stage missiles. Pershing III was a proposal for a four-stage 25,000 pounds (11,000 kg) version that would have replaced
4512-475: The adapter connected by a manufactured splice. At the forward end of the G&C there was a quick access splice for attachment to the warhead section. At the aft end, the adapter was grooved to accept the V-band that spliced the propulsion section to the G&C section. The RV separation system consisted of a linear shaped charge ring assembly bolted to the G&C section so that separation occurred just forward of
4608-493: The aid of a curative additive. Because of its high performance, moderate ease of manufacturing, and moderate cost, APCP finds widespread use in space, military, and amateur rockets, whereas cheaper and less efficient ANCP finds use in amateur rocketry and gas generators . Ammonium dinitramide , NH 4 N(NO 2 ) 2 , is being considered as a 1-to-1 chlorine-free substitute for ammonium perchlorate in composite propellants. Unlike ammonium nitrate, ADN can be substituted for AP without
4704-459: The application of electric current. Unlike conventional rocket motor propellants that are difficult to control and extinguish, ESPs can be ignited reliably at precise intervals and durations. It requires no moving parts and the propellant is insensitive to flames or electrical sparks. Solid propellant rocket motors can be bought for use in model rocketry ; they are normally small cylinders of black powder fuel with an integral nozzle and optionally
4800-427: The beginning of the midcourse phase, the RV was pitched down to orient it for reentry and to reduce its radar cross-section. The midcourse attitude was then controlled by the RV vane control system during atmospheric exit and reentry, and by a reaction control system during exoatmospheric flight. At a predetermined altitude above the target, the terminal phase would begin. A velocity control maneuver (pull up, pull down)
4896-513: The cables that passed from the G&C section to the RS. The radar section consisted of the Goodyear radar unit with the antenna enclosed in an ablative radome . The radar unit transmitted radio waves to the target area during the terminal phase, received altitude and video information and sent the detected video and altitude data to the data correlator unit (DCU) in the G&C section. The highly accurate terminal guidance technique used by
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#17327723978354992-467: The cargo bay of the Space Shuttle. Star motors have propellant fractions as high as 94.6% but add-on structures and equipment reduce the operating mass fraction by 2% or more. Higher performing solid rocket propellants are used in large strategic missiles (as opposed to commercial launch vehicles). HMX , C 4 H 8 N 4 (NO 2 ) 4 , a nitramine with greater energy than ammonium perchlorate,
5088-452: The casing is often implemented, which ablates to prolong the life of the motor casing. A convergent-divergent design accelerates the exhaust gas out of the nozzle to produce thrust. The nozzle must be constructed from a material that can withstand the heat of the combustion gas flow. Often, heat-resistant carbon-based materials are used, such as amorphous graphite or reinforced carbon–carbon . Some designs include directional control of
5184-561: The correlator system failed to operate or if the correlation data quality was faulty the inertial guidance system continued to operate and guided the RV to the target area with inertial accuracy only. Goodyear also developed the Reference Scene Generation Facility, a truck-mounted shelter containing the equipment required to program the missile targeting controlled by a DEC PDP-11/70 . Radar maps of target areas were stored on disk, then specific targeting data
5280-454: The currently favored APCP solid propellants. With a specific impulse of 309 s already demonstrated by Peacekeeper's second stage using HMX propellant, the higher energy of CL-20 propellant can be expected to increase specific impulse to around 320 s in similar ICBM or launch vehicle upper stage applications, without the explosive hazard of HMX. An attractive attribute for military use is the ability for solid rocket propellant to remain loaded in
5376-656: The deployment and a human chain was formed from the US Army headquarters in Stuttgart to the gates of Wiley Barracks in Neu-Ulm, the site of one of the Pershing battalions. Due to accessibility, the protests focused on the Mutlangen Missile Storage Area from Easter 1983 until the signing of the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty in 1987. On 19 April 1985, the US Army wrote to Congress that
5472-621: The deployment was completed in late 1985 with a total of 108 launchers. Initial Operational Status (IOS) was achieved on 15 December 1983 when A Battery, 1st Battalion, 41st Field Artillery Regiment rotated onto operational status with the Pershing II at its site in Mutlangen . The West German government announced on 13 December 1985 that the US Army 56th Field Artillery Brigade was equipped with 108 Pershing II launchers across three missile battalions stationed at Neu-Ulm , Mutlangen and Neckarsulm . The deployment of Pershing II and GLCM missiles
5568-712: The destruction of the launchers and rocket motors. The W-85 warheads used in the Pershing II missiles were removed, modified, and reused in the B61 nuclear bomb . The Orbital Sciences Storm I target missile used air vanes from the Pershing 1a. The Pershing II guidance section was re-used in the Coleman Aerospace Hera and the Orbital Sciences Corporation Storm II target missiles. The INF Treaty allowed for seven inert Pershing II missiles to be retained for display purposes. One
5664-672: The development and improvements, while the Field Artillery Branch deployed the systems and developed tactical doctrine. Development began in 1973 for an updated Pershing. The Pershing 1a had a 400 kt warhead, which was greatly over-powered for the Quick Reaction Alert (QRA) tactical role the weapon system filled. Reducing warhead yield, however, required a significant increase in accuracy to match Pershing 1a's ability to kill hard targets like command bunkers. The contract went to Martin Marietta in 1975 with
5760-611: The exhaust can turn the smoke opaque. A powdered oxidizer and powdered metal fuel are intimately mixed and immobilized with a rubbery binder (that also acts as a fuel). Composite propellants are often either ammonium-nitrate -based (ANCP) or ammonium-perchlorate -based (APCP). Ammonium nitrate composite propellant often uses magnesium and/or aluminium as fuel and delivers medium performance (I sp of about 210 s (2.1 km/s)) whereas ammonium perchlorate composite propellant often uses aluminium fuel and delivers high performance: vacuum I sp up to 296 s (2.90 km/s) with
5856-542: The exhaust. This can be accomplished by gimballing the nozzle, as in the Space Shuttle SRBs, by the use of jet vanes in the exhaust as in the V-2 rocket, or by liquid injection thrust vectoring (LITV). LITV consists of injecting a liquid into the exhaust stream after the nozzle throat. The liquid then vaporizes, and in most cases chemically reacts, adding mass flow to one side of the exhaust stream and thus providing
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#17327723978355952-413: The first development launches in 1977. Pershing II was to use the new W85 warhead with a 5 to 80 kt variable yield or an earth-penetrator W86 warhead. The warhead was packaged in a maneuverable reentry vehicle (MARV) with active radar guidance and would use the existing rocket motors. Requests from Israel to buy the new Pershing II were rejected in 1975. The Soviet Union began deployment of
6048-563: The first industrial manufacture of military rockets with the Congreve rocket in 1804. In 1921 the Soviet research and development laboratory Gas Dynamics Laboratory began developing solid-propellant rockets, which resulted in the first launch in 1928, that flew for approximately 1,300 metres. These rockets were used in 1931 for the world's first successful use of rockets to assist take-off of aircraft . The research continued from 1933 by
6144-445: The functional definition of double base propellants. One of the most active areas of solid propellant research is the development of high-energy, minimum-signature propellant using C 6 H 6 N 6 (NO 2 ) 6 CL-20 nitroamine ( China Lake compound #20), which has 14% higher energy per mass and 20% higher energy density than HMX. The new propellant has been successfully developed and tested in tactical rocket motors. The propellant
6240-470: The gooey asphalt, creating a flexible but geometrically stable load-bearing propellant grain that bonded securely to the motor casing. This made possible much larger solid rocket motors. Atlantic Research Corporation significantly boosted composite propellant I sp in 1954 by increasing the amount of powdered aluminium in the propellant to as much as 20%. Solid-propellant rocket technology got its largest boost in technical innovation, size and capability with
6336-440: The grain, failure of case bonding, and air pockets in the grain. All of these produce an instantaneous increase in burn surface area and a corresponding increase in exhaust gas production rate and pressure, which may rupture the casing. Another failure mode is casing seal failure. Seals are required in casings that have to be opened to load the grain. Once a seal fails, hot gas will erode the escape path and result in failure. This
6432-557: The group logo made of scrap material. The Parker Pen Company created a series of pens with a Memorial Fund badge made of scrap missile material, with half the proceeds going to the fund. On 4 November 1991 the Ronald Reagan Presidential Library opened in Simi Valley, California. The then five living presidents, Richard Nixon, Gerald Ford, George Bush, Jimmy Carter and Ronald Reagan were present at
6528-658: The ingredients necessary for combustion within the chamber in which they are burned. More advanced solid rocket motors can be throttled , or extinguished and re-ignited, by control of the nozzle geometry or through the use of vent ports. Further, pulsed rocket motors that burn in segments, and that can be ignited upon command are available. Modern designs may also include a steerable nozzle for guidance, avionics , recovery hardware ( parachutes ), self-destruct mechanisms, APUs , controllable tactical motors, controllable divert and attitude control motors, and thermal management materials. The medieval Song dynasty Chinese invented
6624-597: The last of the missiles were destroyed by the static burn of their motors and subsequently crushed in May 1991 at the Longhorn Army Ammunition Plant near Caddo Lake , Texas. Although not covered by the treaty, West Germany agreed unilaterally to the removal of the Pershing 1a missiles from its inventory in 1991, and the missiles were destroyed in the United States. The INF treaty only covered
6720-637: The longer-range, but slower BGM-109G Ground Launched Cruise Missile (GLCM) to strike potential targets farther to the east. The Pershing II with the longer-range motors was initially referred to as Pershing II Extended Range (PIIXR), then reverting to Pershing II. Both the hard-target capability and W86 nuclear warhead were canceled in 1980, and all production Pershing II missiles carried the W85. A concept warhead using kinetic energy penetrators for counter-airfield operations never materialized. Because of SALT II agreements, no new launchers could be built, therefore
6816-589: The main missile. There were two prime movers for the launcher, both with a crane used for missile assembly and a generator to provide power for the launcher and missile. The U.S. units used the M983 HEMTT with a Hiab 8001 crane and a 30 kW generator. Tactical units in Germany used the M1001 MAN tractor with an Atlas Maschinen GmbH AK4300 M5 crane and a 30 kW generator. Since the new guidance system
6912-519: The mix). Almost all sounding rockets use solid motors. Due to reliability, ease of storage and handling, solid rockets are used on missiles and ICBMs. Solid rockets are suitable for launching small payloads to orbital velocities, especially if three or more stages are used. Many of these are based on repurposed ICBMs. Warhead Types of warheads include: Often, a biological or chemical warhead will use an explosive charge for rapid dispersal. Explosive warheads contain detonators to trigger
7008-560: The mix. This extra component usually is in the form of small crystals of RDX or HMX , both of which have higher energy than ammonium perchlorate. Despite a modest increase in specific impulse, implementation is limited due to the increased hazards of the high-explosive additives. Composite modified double base propellants start with a nitrocellulose/nitroglycerin double base propellant as a binder and add solids (typically ammonium perchlorate (AP) and powdered aluminium ) normally used in composite propellants. The ammonium perchlorate makes up
7104-420: The next 50 years. By the later 1980s and continuing to 2020, these government-developed highly-capable solid rocket technologies have been applied to orbital spaceflight by many government-directed programs , most often as booster rockets to add extra thrust during the early ascent of their primarily liquid rocket launch vehicles . Some designs have had solid rocket upper stages as well. Examples flying in
7200-536: The opening. Parker presented them each with a black ballpoint Duofold Centennial with the Presidential seal on the crown formed from scrap Pershing and SS-20 material, and engraved signatures of the presidents. The pen was also offered in a walnut box also with the names of all five presidents and the Presidential seal. In 2000, a number of U.S. Army Pershing missile veterans decided to seek out their fellow veterans and to start acquiring information and artifacts on
7296-569: The oxygen deficit introduced by using nitrocellulose , improving the overall specific impulse. The aluminium improves specific impulse as well as combustion stability. High performing propellants such as NEPE-75 used to fuel the Trident II D-5 SLBM replace most of the AP with polyethylene glycol -bound HMX , further increasing specific impulse. The mixing of composite and double base propellant ingredients has become so common as to blur
7392-463: The propellant surface area exposed to the combustion gases. Since the propellant volume is equal to the cross sectional area A s {\displaystyle A_{s}} times the fuel length, the volumetric propellant consumption rate is the cross section area times the linear burn rate b ˙ {\displaystyle {\dot {b}}} , and the instantaneous mass flow rate of combustion gases generated
7488-561: The protest groups to keep them informed. Pershing 1b was a single-stage, reduced-range version of Pershing II with the same range as the Pershing 1a. The Pershing II launcher was designed so that the cradle could be easily repositioned to handle the shorter missile airframe. The intent was to replace the German Air Force's Pershing 1a systems with Pershing 1b, since SALT II limited the range of German-owned missiles. The German government agreed to destroy its Pershing 1a systems when
7584-417: The retired Peacekeeper ICBMs). The Naval Air Weapons Station at China Lake, California, developed a new compound, C 6 H 6 N 6 (NO 2 ) 6 , called simply CL-20 (China Lake compound 20). Compared to HMX, CL-20 has 14% more energy per mass, 20% more energy per volume, and a higher oxygen-to-fuel ratio. One of the motivations for development of these very high energy density military solid propellants
7680-403: The rocket for long durations and then be reliably launched at a moment's notice. Black powder (gunpowder) is composed of charcoal (fuel), potassium nitrate (oxidizer), and sulfur (fuel and catalyst). It is one of the oldest pyrotechnic compositions with application to rocketry. In modern times, black powder finds use in low-power model rockets (such as Estes and Quest rockets), as it
7776-496: The short-range Pershing 1b, but this never materialised. On 26 August 1987, West German Chancellor Helmut Kohl pledged to unilaterally dismantle these missiles if the United States and the Soviet Union scrapped all their INF missiles. These missiles were decommissioned by 1991 due to the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty . The first Pershing II launchers were deployed in West Germany beginning in late November 1983 and
7872-412: The swivel nozzles in the two propulsion sections. Roll control was provided by two movable air vanes on the first stage during first stage flight and by the RV air vanes during second stage flight. The first stage also had two fixed air vanes for stability during first stage powered flight. The midcourse phase of the trajectory was initiated at RV separation and continued until the terminal phase began. At
7968-573: The system could not target Moscow. On 12 December 1979, at a special meeting of NATO Foreign and Defence Ministers in Brussels, the NATO Double-Track Decision was adopted. The ministers resolved to deploy 108 Pershing II launchers to Western Europe to replace existing Pershing 1a launchers and 464 BGM-109G Ground Launched Cruise Missiles . Separately, the German Air Force had planned to replace their 72 Pershing 1a missiles with
8064-548: The target area, the Pershing II had an accuracy of 30 metres (100 ft) circular error probable . If the radar guidance failed, the inertial guidance would keep the missile on-target with a lower accuracy. The G&C also contained the Pershing Airborne Computer (PAC), the digital correlator unit (DCU) and actuators to drive the air fins. The warhead section contained the W85 warhead , the rate gyro unit and
8160-430: The target by the RV vane control system. The weapon had a range of 1,800 kilometres (1,100 mi). Soviet estimates put the system's range at 2,500 kilometres (1,600 mi) and they also believed that the missile was armed with an earth-penetrating warhead. These two errors contributed to Soviet fears of the weapon, believing it could be used to decapitate the Soviet Union. In reality, from positions in West Germany
8256-499: The tractor of a Pershing II erector launcher and hung a banner over the truck. On 24 September 1984, elements of 1st Battalion, 41st Field Artillery were on a field exercise near Mutlangen . A launcher and MAN tractor were parked on the edge of a dirt road when it slid off and rolled over into deep snow. The equipment was recovered after a six-hour operation. On 11 January 1985, three soldiers of C Battery, 3rd Battalion, 84th Field Artillery Regiment were killed in fire at Camp Redleg,
8352-616: The various mid-20th century government initiatives to develop increasingly capable military missiles. After initial designs of ballistic missile military technology designed with liquid-propellant rockets in the 1940s and 1950s, both the Soviet Union and the United States embarked on major initiatives to develop solid-propellant local , regional , and intercontinental ballistic missiles, including solid-propellant missiles that could be launched from air or sea . Many other governments also developed these military technologies over
8448-719: Was a cause of significant protests in Europe and the US, many organized by the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament . Protests against the short-range MGM-52 Lance nuclear missile began in July 1981 in Engstingen , West Germany. In October 1981, 300,000 protesters assembled in Bonn . European Nuclear Disarmament began a campaign for nuclear disarmament in 1982. The Seneca Women's Encampment for
8544-428: Was enacted through late 1986, when new grounding and handling procedures were put into place. Ballistic covers were later added to the Pershing II missiles and to the Pershing 1a missiles still in use by the German Air Force. The fire provoked further protests against the Pershing II deployment in the name of safety. The 56th Field Artillery Command worked closely with local authorities, the press and representatives of
8640-401: Was executed under inertial guidance control to slow down the RV and achieve the proper impact velocity. The radar correlator system was activated and the radar scanned the target area. Radar return data was compared to pre-stored reference data and the resulting position fix information was used to update the inertial guidance system and generate RV steering commands. The RV was then maneuvered to
8736-416: Was self-orienting, the launcher could be emplaced on any surveyed site and the missile launched within minutes. The new rocket motors were built by Hercules: To minimize airframe weight, the rocket cases were spun from Kevlar with aluminum attachment rings. The Pershing 1a cable mast was replaced by a conduit attached to each motor containing two cables. Cables internally connected from motor to motor and to
8832-488: Was the cause of the Space Shuttle Challenger disaster . Solid rocket fuel deflagrates from the surface of exposed propellant in the combustion chamber. In this fashion, the geometry of the propellant inside the rocket motor plays an important role in the overall motor performance. As the surface of the propellant burns, the shape evolves (a subject of study in internal ballistics), most often changing
8928-484: Was transferred to a quarter-inch cartridge in a hardened carrier. During countdown operations, the cartridge was plugged into the launcher control panel to program the missile with targeting data. Prior to launch, the missile was referenced in azimuth by its gyrocompass inertial platform. After launch, the missile followed an inertially guided trajectory until RV separation. Attitude and guidance commands during powered flight (except for roll attitude) were executed via
9024-423: Was two minutes. The nozzle throat was large enough to walk through standing up. The motor was capable of serving as a 1-to-1 replacement for the 8-engine Saturn I liquid-propellant first stage but was never used as such. Motor 260 SL-3 was of similar length and weight but had a maximum thrust of 24 MN (5,400,000 lbf) and a shorter duration. Design begins with the total impulse required, which determines
9120-407: Was used for the space shuttle boosters . Filament-wound graphite epoxy casings are used for high-performance motors. The casing must be designed to withstand the pressure and resulting stresses of the rocket motor, possibly at elevated temperature. For design, the casing is considered a pressure vessel . To protect the casing from corrosive hot gases, a sacrificial thermal liner on the inside of
9216-673: Was used in the propellant of the Peacekeeper ICBM and is the main ingredient in NEPE-75 propellant used in the Trident II D-5 Fleet Ballistic Missile. It is because of explosive hazard that the higher energy military solid propellants containing HMX are not used in commercial launch vehicles except when the LV is an adapted ballistic missile already containing HMX propellant (Minotaur IV and V based on
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