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91-548: The Peshtigo fire was a large forest fire on October 8, 1871, in northeastern Wisconsin , United States, including much of the southern half of the Door Peninsula and adjacent parts of the Upper Peninsula of Michigan . The largest community in the affected area was Peshtigo, Wisconsin , which had a population of approximately 1,700 residents. The fire burned about 1.2 million acres (490,000 ha) and

182-570: A defensible space be maintained by clearing flammable materials within a prescribed distance from the structure. Communities in the Philippines also maintain fire lines 5 to 10 meters (16 to 33 ft) wide between the forest and their village, and patrol these lines during summer months or seasons of dry weather. Continued residential development in fire-prone areas and rebuilding structures destroyed by fires has been met with criticism. The ecological benefits of fire are often overridden by

273-607: A graveyard dedicated to victims of the tragedy. A memorial commemorating the fire was dedicated on October 8, 2012, at the bridge over the Peshtigo River. The Peshtigo Fire Cemetery was entered into the National Register of Historic Places . The National Shrine of Our Lady of Good Help , a Marian shrine in Champion , was established at the site of a chapel where Sister Adele Brise and others sheltered from

364-480: A mass grave , as there was no one left to identify them. The Rev. Peter Pernin, in his eyewitness account, states that the prolonged drought at that time combined with the factor of human carelessness were omens of the horrible disaster. He also notes how the fire seemed to jump across the Peshtigo River using the bridges and upward air drafts and burn both sides of the town. Other survivors reported that

455-553: A 'dormant' comet. There have been several attempts to identify objects discovered subsequently either as Biela's Comet or as a remnant of it. The German astronomer Karl Ristenpart attempted several times to prove a link with the comet now known as 18D/Perrine-Mrkos , which had a very similar orbit to Biela apart from a differing Argument of Perihelion . Despite this, it was not possible to prove any relationship and Perrine-Mrkos, an intrinsically faint object, has itself since been lost. Comet 207P/NEAT (P/2001 J1), discovered in 2001 by

546-469: A 15 mile radius. Additionally, Sensaio Tech , based in Brazil and Toronto, has released a sensor device that continuously monitors 14 different variables common in forests, ranging from soil temperature to salinity. This information is connected live back to clients through dashboard visualizations, while mobile notifications are provided regarding dangerous levels. Satellite and aerial monitoring through

637-470: A 24-hour fire day that begins at 10:00 a.m. due to the predictable increase in intensity resulting from the daytime warmth. Climate change promotes the type of weather that makes wildfires more likely. In some areas, an increase of wildfires has been attributed directly to climate change. Evidence from Earth's past also shows more fire in warmer periods. Climate change increases evapotranspiration . This can cause vegetation and soils to dry out. When

728-553: A blind girl went to the chapel to pray and came out able to see; however, none of these stories have ever been reliably documented. Tornado Memorial County Park is located on the site of the former community of Williamsonville, a small village in Door County, and is named for the fire whirl which occurred there. Out of 76 residents, only 19 survived, and Williamsonville was never rebuilt. The combination of topography , geography , wind conditions,and ignition sources that led to

819-510: A credible report of a fire being started by a meteorite . In any event, no external source of ignition was needed. There were already numerous small fires burning in the area as part of land-clearing operations and similar activities after a tinder-dry summer. All that was necessary to trigger the firestorm, plus the other large fires in the Midwest, was a strong wind from the weather front which had moved in that evening. The wildfire remains

910-410: A definitive orbit. Gauss and Olbers both noted a similarity between the 1805 and 1772 comets but they were not able to prove a link. It was Wilhelm von Biela , an army officer serving at the fortress town of Josefstadt , who observed the comet during its 1826 perihelion approach (on February 27) and calculated its orbit , discovering it to be periodic with a period of 6.6 years. At the time it

1001-566: A doubling in land area burned by wildfires compared to natural levels. Humans have impacted wildfire through climate change (e.g. more intense heat waves and droughts ), land-use change , and wildfire suppression . The carbon released from wildfires can add to carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere and thus contribute to the greenhouse effect . This creates a climate change feedback . Naturally occurring wildfires can have beneficial effects on those ecosystems that have evolved with fire. In fact, many plant species depend on

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1092-535: A fire ranges from one thousand to ten thousand feet ... When a firestorm erupts in a forest, it is a blowup, nature's nuclear explosion ... " By the time it was over, between 1.2 and 1.5 million acres of land had been burned. In addition to Peshtigo, 16 other communities were destroyed in the fire. The value of the property and forest that was destroyed in the fire was estimated to be about $ 5 million US (about $ 127 million in 2024 dollars). Additionally, 2,000,000 trees, saplings, and animals perished in

1183-610: A fire starts in an area with very dry vegetation, it can spread rapidly. Higher temperatures can also lengthen the fire season. This is the time of year in which severe wildfires are most likely, particularly in regions where snow is disappearing. Weather conditions are raising the risks of wildfires. But the total area burnt by wildfires has decreased. This is mostly because savanna has been converted to cropland , so there are fewer trees to burn. Climate variability including heat waves , droughts , and El Niño , and regional weather patterns, such as high-pressure ridges, can increase

1274-477: A firestorm. Something that devastating and that hot." Rutkow (2012) writes that the event prompted almost no change to the practices of the lumber industry or the way settlers approached life in forests. He notes that in the following decades, the rate of industrial logging increased and the amount of forest fires increased throughout the country, with Wisconsin itself experiencing major fires in 1880, 1891, 1894, 1897, 1908, 1910, 1923, 1931, and 1936. The loss of half

1365-523: A likely orbit for any remaining parts of the comet; it was during a search using Marsden's calculations that Luboš Kohoutek discovered Comet Kohoutek . It has been calculated that the mass of the debris left in the Andromedid meteor stream is still much less than the total mass of the comet. Given that it is more likely that the main mass loss occurred near aphelion before the 1845 apparition, it seems possible that fragment A at least may still exist as

1456-489: A million acres a year was not uncommon. The Peshtigo Fire is discussed in Season 1, Episode 8, of the television series The Gilded Age when downstairs character Jack is discovered putting flowers on the grave of his mother, who died in the tragedy. Forest fire A wildfire , forest fire , or a bushfire is an unplanned, uncontrolled and unpredictable fire in an area of combustible vegetation . Depending on

1547-546: A new fire detection tool is in operation at the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) Forest Service (USFS) which uses data from the Suomi National Polar-orbiting Partnership (NPP) satellite to detect smaller fires in more detail than previous space-based products. The high-resolution data is used with a computer model to predict how a fire will change direction based on weather and land conditions. In 2014, an international campaign

1638-415: A number expected to rise to 30,000 by 2050. The economic impact is also significant, with projected costs reaching $ 240 billion annually by 2050, surpassing other climate-related damages. Over the past century, wildfires have accounted for 20–25% of global carbon emissions, the remainder from human activities. Global carbon emissions from wildfires through August 2020 equaled the average annual emissions of

1729-545: A policy of allowing some wildfires to burn is the cheapest method and an ecologically appropriate policy for many forests, they tend not to take into account the economic value of resources that are consumed by the fire, especially merchantable timber. Some studies conclude that while fuels may also be removed by logging, such thinning treatments may not be effective at reducing fire severity under extreme weather conditions. Building codes in fire-prone areas typically require that structures be built of flame-resistant materials and

1820-503: A possible resolution to human operator error. These systems may be semi- or fully automated and employ systems based on the risk area and degree of human presence, as suggested by GIS data analyses. An integrated approach of multiple systems can be used to merge satellite data, aerial imagery, and personnel position via Global Positioning System (GPS) into a collective whole for near-realtime use by wireless Incident Command Centers . A small, high risk area that features thick vegetation,

1911-531: A rapid forward rate of spread (FROS) when burning through dense uninterrupted fuels. They can move as fast as 10.8 kilometres per hour (6.7 mph) in forests and 22 kilometres per hour (14 mph) in grasslands. Wildfires can advance tangential to the main front to form a flanking front, or burn in the opposite direction of the main front by backing . They may also spread by jumping or spotting as winds and vertical convection columns carry firebrands (hot wood embers) and other burning materials through

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2002-695: A remote site and sent via overnight mail to the fire manager . During the Yellowstone fires of 1988 , a data station was established in West Yellowstone , permitting the delivery of satellite-based fire information in approximately four hours. Public hotlines, fire lookouts in towers, and ground and aerial patrols can be used as a means of early detection of forest fires. However, accurate human observation may be limited by operator fatigue , time of day, time of year, and geographic location. Electronic systems have gained popularity in recent years as

2093-569: A strong human presence, or is close to a critical urban area can be monitored using a local sensor network . Detection systems may include wireless sensor networks that act as automated weather systems: detecting temperature, humidity, and smoke. These may be battery-powered, solar-powered, or tree-rechargeable : able to recharge their battery systems using the small electrical currents in plant material. Larger, medium-risk areas can be monitored by scanning towers that incorporate fixed cameras and sensors to detect smoke or additional factors such as

2184-405: Is governed in part by topography , as land shape determines factors such as available sunlight and water for plant growth. Overall, fire types can be generally characterized by their fuels as follows: Wildfires occur when all the necessary elements of a fire triangle come together in a susceptible area: an ignition source is brought into contact with a combustible material such as vegetation that

2275-728: Is no longer an expectation, but the majority of wildfires are often extinguished before they grow out of control. While more than 99% of the 10,000 new wildfires each year are contained, escaped wildfires under extreme weather conditions are difficult to suppress without a change in the weather. Wildfires in Canada and the US burn an average of 54,500 square kilometers (13,000,000 acres) per year. Above all, fighting wildfires can become deadly. A wildfire's burning front may also change direction unexpectedly and jump across fire breaks. Intense heat and smoke can lead to disorientation and loss of appreciation of

2366-473: Is prone to offset errors, anywhere from 2 to 3 kilometers (1 to 2 mi) for MODIS and AVHRR data and up to 12 kilometers (7.5 mi) for GOES data. Satellites in geostationary orbits may become disabled, and satellites in polar orbits are often limited by their short window of observation time. Cloud cover and image resolution may also limit the effectiveness of satellite imagery. Global Forest Watch provides detailed daily updates on fire alerts. In 2015

2457-662: Is subjected to enough heat and has an adequate supply of oxygen from the ambient air. A high moisture content usually prevents ignition and slows propagation, because higher temperatures are needed to evaporate any water in the material and heat the material to its fire point . Dense forests usually provide more shade, resulting in lower ambient temperatures and greater humidity , and are therefore less susceptible to wildfires. Less dense material such as grasses and leaves are easier to ignite because they contain less water than denser material such as branches and trunks. Plants continuously lose water by evapotranspiration , but water loss

2548-431: Is the deadliest wildfire in recorded history , with the number of deaths estimated between 1,500 and 2,500. The exact number of deaths is debated. Data from mass graves, both those already exhumed and those still being discovered, show that the death toll of the blaze was most likely greater than the 1889 Johnstown flood death toll of 2,200 people or more. Occurring on the same day as the more famous Great Chicago Fire ,

2639-416: Is usually balanced by water absorbed from the soil, humidity, or rain. When this balance is not maintained, often as a consequence of droughts , plants dry out and are therefore more flammable. A wildfire front is the portion sustaining continuous flaming combustion, where unburned material meets active flames, or the smoldering transition between unburned and burned material. As the front approaches,

2730-418: The 2019–20 Australian bushfire season "an independent study found online bots and trolls exaggerating the role of arson in the fires." In the 2023 Canadian wildfires false claims of arson gained traction on social media; however, arson is generally not a main cause of wildfires in Canada. In California, generally 6–10% of wildfires annually are arson. Coal seam fires burn in the thousands around

2821-965: The Amazon rainforest . The fires in the latter were caused mainly by illegal logging . The smoke from the fires expanded on huge territory including major cities, dramatically reducing air quality. As of August 2020, the wildfires in that year were 13% worse than in 2019 due primarily to climate change , deforestation and agricultural burning. The Amazon rainforest 's existence is threatened by fires. Record-breaking wildfires in 2021 occurred in Turkey , Greece and Russia , thought to be linked to climate change. The carbon released from wildfires can add to greenhouse gas concentrations. Climate models do not yet fully reflect this feedback . Wildfires release large amounts of carbon dioxide, black and brown carbon particles, and ozone precursors such as volatile organic compounds and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into

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2912-569: The European Union . In 2020, the carbon released by California's wildfires was significantly larger than the state's other carbon emissions. Forest fires in Indonesia in 1997 were estimated to have released between 0.81 and 2.57 giga tonnes (0.89 and 2.83 billion short tons ) of CO 2 into the atmosphere, which is between 13–40% of the annual global carbon dioxide emissions from burning fossil fuels. In June and July 2019, fires in

3003-480: The Fire Information for Resource Management System (FIRMS). Between 2022–2023, wildfires throughout North America prompted an uptake in the delivery and design of various technologies using artificial intelligence for early detection, prevention, and prediction of wildfires. Wildfire suppression depends on the technologies available in the area in which the wildfire occurs. In less developed nations

3094-504: The Paris climate agreement . Due to the complex oxidative chemistry occurring during the transport of wildfire smoke in the atmosphere, the toxicity of emissions was indicated to increase over time. Atmospheric models suggest that these concentrations of sooty particles could increase absorption of incoming solar radiation during winter months by as much as 15%. The Amazon is estimated to hold around 90 billion tons of carbon. As of 2019,

3185-408: The firestorm generated a fire whirl (described as a tornado) that threw rail cars and houses into the air. Many citizens escaped the flames by immersing themselves in the Peshtigo River, wells, or other nearby bodies of water. Some drowned while others succumbed to hypothermia in the frigid river. In one account, a man slit the throats of all his children to spare them from an agonizing death. At

3276-429: The taiga biome are particularly susceptible. Wildfires can severely impact humans and their settlements. Effects include for example the direct health impacts of smoke and fire, as well as destruction of property (especially in wildland–urban interfaces ), and economic losses. There is also the potential for contamination of water and soil. At a global level, human practices have made the impacts of wildfire worse, with

3367-463: The Arctic emitted more than 140 megatons of carbon dioxide, according to an analysis by CAMS. To put that into perspective this amounts to the same amount of carbon emitted by 36 million cars in a year. The recent wildfires and their massive CO 2 emissions mean that it will be important to take them into consideration when implementing measures for reaching greenhouse gas reduction targets accorded with

3458-471: The Chicago and Peshtigo fires were cited to support the idea of an extraterrestrial cause, such as blue flames (thought to be cometary gases burning) in the basements of houses. However, modern fire theory indicates that the blue color was most likely a product of burning carbon monoxide in the poorly ventilated basements. Additionally, scientists with expertise in the field pointed out that there has never been

3549-515: The Earth, in October 1871. The theory was first proposed by Ignatius L. Donnelly in 1883, and was revived in a 1985 book and further explored in an unpublished 2004 scientific paper. However, experts dispute such a scenario - meteorites in fact are cold to the touch when they reach the Earth's surface, and there are no credible reports of any fire anywhere having been started by a meteorite. Given

3640-526: The NEAT asteroid survey, was also found to have a similar orbit to Biela's Comet, and it was initially thought possible that it was in some way related to it. Propagating the very dated orbit from the 1800s, there is speculation that Biela could pass around 0.2  AU (30 million  km ) from Earth in late October 2023 and come to perihelion in December 2023, but Biela could just as easily be out by

3731-545: The Peshtigo Fire were the convent, school, and chapel and five acres of land that had been consecrated to the Virgin Mary. The only animals that survived were those that were brought to the chapel grounds. Following the fire, people had great faith in the chapel and the Virgin Mary because they believe that she had saved them. In the following years, it was claimed that miracles occurred at the chapel. In one account,

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3822-586: The Peshtigo fire has been largely forgotten, even though it killed five times as many people. Nonetheless, several cities in Michigan, including Holland and Manistee (across Lake Michigan from Peshtigo) and Port Huron (at the southern end of Lake Huron ), also had major fires on the same day. These fires, along with many other fires of the 19th century had the same basic causes: small fires coupled with unusually dry weather. Slash-and-burn land management

3913-505: The United States in the early 20th century and fires were reported using telephones, carrier pigeons , and heliographs . Aerial and land photography using instant cameras were used in the 1950s until infrared scanning was developed for fire detection in the 1960s. However, information analysis and delivery was often delayed by limitations in communication technology. Early satellite-derived fire analyses were hand-drawn on maps at

4004-779: The Western US, earlier snowmelt and associated warming has also been associated with an increase in length and severity of the wildfire season, or the most fire-prone time of the year. A 2019 study indicates that the increase in fire risk in California may be partially attributable to human-induced climate change . In the summer of 1974–1975 (southern hemisphere), Australia suffered its worst recorded wildfire, when 15% of Australia's land mass suffered "extensive fire damage". Fires that summer burned up an estimated 117 million hectares (290 million acres ; 1,170,000 square kilometres ; 450,000 square miles ). In Australia,

4095-435: The air over roads, rivers, and other barriers that may otherwise act as firebreaks . Torching and fires in tree canopies encourage spotting, and dry ground fuels around a wildfire are especially vulnerable to ignition from firebrands. Spotting can create spot fires as hot embers and firebrands ignite fuels downwind from the fire. In Australian bushfires , spot fires are known to occur as far as 20 kilometres (12 mi) from

4186-732: The annual number of hot days (above 35 °C) and very hot days (above 40 °C) has increased significantly in many areas of the country since 1950. The country has always had bushfires but in 2019, the extent and ferocity of these fires increased dramatically. For the first time catastrophic bushfire conditions were declared for Greater Sydney. New South Wales and Queensland declared a state of emergency but fires were also burning in South Australia and Western Australia. In 2019, extreme heat and dryness caused massive wildfires in Siberia , Alaska , Canary Islands , Australia , and in

4277-444: The atmosphere. These emissions affect radiation, clouds, and climate on regional and even global scales. Wildfires also emit substantial amounts of semi-volatile organic species that can partition from the gas phase to form secondary organic aerosol (SOA) over hours to days after emission. In addition, the formation of the other pollutants as the air is transported can lead to harmful exposures for populations in regions far away from

4368-438: The comet was again rediscovered more or less as predicted, with "Comet A" being rediscovered first, by Angelo Secchi on August 26. "Comet B" was finally relocated on September 16, and once again both nuclei alternated in brightness during the period of observation. "A" was last detected on this apparition on September 26 and "B" on September 29, in both cases by Otto Wilhelm Struve . Subsequent orbital calculations indicated that

4459-433: The deadliest in the history of the United States. William B. Ogden , a politician and owner of the factories in Peshtigo, returned to rebuild the town. However, progress was slow and many buildings, including the woodenware factory, never reopened. Today, Peshtigo has roughly 3,500 residents. The Peshtigo Fire Museum , just west of U.S. Highway 41 , has a small collection of fire artifacts, first-person accounts, and

4550-605: The direction of the fire, which can make fires particularly dangerous. For example, during the 1949 Mann Gulch fire in Montana , United States, thirteen smokejumpers died when they lost their communication links, became disoriented, and were overtaken by the fire. In the Australian February 2009 Victorian bushfires , at least 173 people died and over 2,029 homes and 3,500 structures were lost when they became engulfed by wildfire. Biela%27s Comet The comet

4641-697: The earth's atmosphere has 415 parts per million of carbon, and the destruction of the Amazon would add about 38 parts per million. Some research has shown wildfire smoke can have a cooling effect. Research in 2007 stated that black carbon in snow changed temperature three times more than atmospheric carbon dioxide. As much as 94 percent of Arctic warming may be caused by dark carbon on snow that initiates melting. The dark carbon comes from fossil fuels burning, wood and other biofuels, and forest fires. Melting can occur even at low concentrations of dark carbon (below five parts per billion)". Wildfire prevention refers to

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4732-411: The economic and safety benefits of protecting structures and human life. The demand for timely, high-quality fire information has increased in recent years. Fast and effective detection is a key factor in wildfire fighting. Early detection efforts were focused on early response, accurate results in both daytime and nighttime, and the ability to prioritize fire danger. Fire lookout towers were used in

4823-552: The effect of weather on the fire. Wildfire severity results from a combination of factors such as available fuels, physical setting, and weather. Climatic cycles with wet periods that create substantial fuels, followed by drought and heat, often precede severe wildfires. These cycles have been intensified by climate change . Wildfires are a common type of disaster in some regions, including Siberia (Russia), California (United States), British Columbia (Canada), and Australia . Areas with Mediterranean climates or in

4914-412: The effects of fire for growth and reproduction. The ignition of a fire takes place through either natural causes or human activity (deliberate or not). Natural occurrences that can ignite wildfires without the involvement of humans include lightning , volcanic eruptions , sparks from rock falls, and spontaneous combustions . Sources of human-caused fire may include arson, accidental ignition, or

5005-498: The elliptical orbit of Biela's Comet. The 1839 apparition was extremely unfavourable and no observations were made as the comet never came closer than 1.8 AU from Earth since the comet was on the other side of the Sun. During 1839 the comet never had a solar elongation greater than 50 degrees. As of 1832, comet Biela had an Earth-MOID ( Minimum orbit intersection distance ) of only 0.0005 AU (75 thousand km). The comet

5096-494: The fire and survived. According to Sister Adele, in October 1859, she had a vision of the Blessed Virgin Mary with a warning, saying "If they do not convert and do penance, my Son will be obliged to punish them." Twelve years later, the fire erupted and many people flocked to the church for safety. The people prayed the rosary, and hours later rain came, which put out the fire. Some of the very few things that survived

5187-402: The fire front. Especially large wildfires may affect air currents in their immediate vicinities by the stack effect : air rises as it is heated, and large wildfires create powerful updrafts that will draw in new, cooler air from surrounding areas in thermal columns . Great vertical differences in temperature and humidity encourage pyrocumulus clouds , strong winds, and fire whirls with

5278-417: The fire heats both the surrounding air and woody material through convection and thermal radiation . First, wood is dried as water is vaporized at a temperature of 100 °C (212 °F). Next, the pyrolysis of wood at 230 °C (450 °F) releases flammable gases. Finally, wood can smolder at 380 °C (720 °F) or, when heated sufficiently, ignite at 590 °C (1,000 °F). Even before

5369-464: The fire is known as the "Peshtigo paradigm". The American and British militaries studied the fire during World War II to learn how to recreate firestorms during bombing campaigns against cities in Germany and Japan. Denise Gess, co-author of Firestorm at Peshtigo , said, "They actually made a 'demo' first, a little scale model of wooden buildings, and studied how you would drop bombs until it created

5460-525: The fire; this had a devastating economic impact on the area as well. An accurate death toll has never been determined because all local records were destroyed in the fire. Estimates vary from 1,200 to 2,400 deaths. The 1873 Report to the Wisconsin Legislature listed 1,182 names of dead or missing residents. In 1870, the Town of Peshtigo had 1,749 residents. More than 350 bodies were buried in

5551-452: The flames of a wildfire arrive at a particular location, heat transfer from the wildfire front warms the air to 800 °C (1,470 °F), which pre-heats and dries flammable materials, causing materials to ignite faster and allowing the fire to spread faster. High-temperature and long-duration surface wildfires may encourage flashover or torching : the drying of tree canopies and their subsequent ignition from below. Wildfires have

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5642-441: The force of tornadoes at speeds of more than 80 kilometres per hour (50 mph). Rapid rates of spread, prolific crowning or spotting, the presence of fire whirls, and strong convection columns signify extreme conditions. Intensity also increases during daytime hours. Burn rates of smoldering logs are up to five times greater during the day due to lower humidity, increased temperatures, and increased wind speeds. Sunlight warms

5733-454: The ground during the day which creates air currents that travel uphill. At night the land cools, creating air currents that travel downhill. Wildfires are fanned by these winds and often follow the air currents over hills and through valleys. Fires in Europe occur frequently during the hours of 12:00 p.m. and 2:00 p.m. Wildfire suppression operations in the United States revolve around

5824-495: The infrared signature of carbon dioxide produced by fires. Additional capabilities such as night vision , brightness detection, and color change detection may also be incorporated into sensor arrays . The Department of Natural Resources signed a contract with PanoAI for the installation of 360 degree 'rapid detection' cameras around the Pacific northwest, which are mounted on cell towers and are capable of 24/7 monitoring of

5915-418: The low tensile strength of such bodies, if a fragment of an icy comet were to strike the Earth, the most likely outcome would be for it to disintegrate in the upper atmosphere, leading to a meteor air burst . On November 27, 1885, an iron meteorite fell in northern Mexico, at the same time as a 15,000 per hour outburst of the Andromedid meteor shower. The Mazapil meteorite has sometimes been attributed to

6006-402: The media of the time, of the Earth's likely destruction overlooked the fact that the Earth itself would not reach this point until November 30, a month later, as pointed out by François Arago in an article designed to allay public fears. Despite this, the fact that Biela's Comet was the only comet known to intersect the Earth's orbit was to make it of particular interest, both to astronomers and

6097-552: The node outside of Earth's orbit . There were, however, inconclusive observations during the 1865 and 1872 returns. Charles Talmage, using ephemerides provided by John Russell Hind , claimed to have briefly observed a nebulous object in approximately the right position in November 1865. James Buckingham also observed two nebulosities in 1865 after studying Hind's predictions, but Hind subsequently stated that they were unlikely to be Biela's Comet, as they were much closer together than

6188-414: The nuclei had probably split around 500 days before the 1845 apparition, though more recent work has determined that it may have occurred near aphelion in late 1842. Neither part could be found on their predicted periodic returns in 1859 (in any case an unfavorable return for viewing), 1865, or 1872. However, on November 27, 1872, a brilliant meteor shower (3,000 per hour ) was observed radiating from

6279-791: The orbit of Jupiter . The 1649 meteoroid stream is expected to generate a modest increase in the December 2023 activity of the Andromedids . Biela has sometimes been proposed as the source of meteoric impacts on Earth. A fringe theory links together several major fires that occurred simultaneously in America, including the Great Chicago Fire , the Great Michigan Fire , and the Peshtigo Fire , claiming that they were caused by fragments of Biela's Comet striking

6370-510: The part of the sky where the comet had been predicted to cross in September 1872. This was the date when Earth intersected the 1839 and 1846 meteoroid streams . These meteors became known as the Andromedids or "Bielids" and it seems apparent that they were produced by the breakup of the comet. The meteors were seen again on subsequent occasions for the rest of the 19th century, but have now faded away, due to gravitational perturbations moving

6461-484: The preemptive methods aimed at reducing the risk of fires as well as lessening its severity and spread. Prevention techniques aim to manage air quality, maintain ecological balances, protect resources, and to affect future fires. Prevention policies must consider the role that humans play in wildfires, since, for example, 95% of forest fires in Europe are related to human involvement. Wildfire prevention programs around

6552-403: The public, during the 19th century. In 1832, Greek-Austrian astronomer Georgios Konstantinos Vouris published his own calculations of the elliptical orbit of the comet entitled: Elliptical orbit calculation of Biela's Comet from 96 observations of the year 1832 (Elliptische bahnbere chung des Biela'schen cometen aus 96 beobachtungen des Jahres 1832) . His article was a comprehensive overview of

6643-404: The risk and alter the behavior of wildfires dramatically. Years of high precipitation can produce rapid vegetation growth, which when followed by warmer periods can encourage more widespread fires and longer fire seasons. High temperatures dry out the fuel loads and make them more flammable, increasing tree mortality and posing significant risks to global forest health. Since the mid-1980s, in

6734-516: The same time, another fire burned parts of the Door Peninsula ; because of the coincidence, some incorrectly assumed that the Peshtigo fire had jumped across the waters of Green Bay into the Door County regions. However, the fire did not jump across the bay. Most likely, the firestorm spread and created a new ground fire in New Franken which then spread and burned everything northward up until Sturgeon Bay. Speculation since 1883 has suggested that

6825-539: The start of the Peshtigo and Chicago fires on the same day was not coincidental, but that all the major fires in Illinois, Michigan and Wisconsin that day were caused by impact of fragments from Biela's Comet . This hypothesis was revived in a 1985 book, reviewed in a 1997 documentary, and investigated in a 2004 paper published by the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics . Certain behaviors of

6916-399: The techniques used can be as simple as throwing sand or beating the fire with sticks or palm fronds. In more advanced nations, the suppression methods vary due to increased technological capacity. Silver iodide can be used to encourage snow fall, while fire retardants and water can be dropped onto fires by unmanned aerial vehicles , planes , and helicopters . Complete fire suppression

7007-532: The two components of the comet should have been. A puzzling observation recorded as X/1872 X1 , seen by N. R. Pogson in late 1872 from the Madras Observatory , was also speculated to be a recovery of Biela's Comet, though once again this was later shown to have been unlikely. Despite the apparent destruction of the comet, there were a number of searches for it during the later 20th century. Brian G. Marsden and Zdeněk Sekanina attempted to calculate

7098-409: The two elements (usually referred to as "Comet A" and "Comet B" in modern nomenclature) alternated in brightness, developing parallel tails as they approached perihelion. Some observations indicated an "archway of cometary matter" extending between the two nuclei, which might suggest that the comet had split into many more pieces than two, but were simply too faint to be observed individually. In 1852,

7189-723: The type of vegetation present, a wildfire may be more specifically identified as a bushfire ( in Australia ), desert fire, grass fire, hill fire, peat fire, prairie fire, vegetation fire, or veld fire. Some natural forest ecosystems depend on wildfire. Wildfires are different from controlled or prescribed burning , which are carried out to provide a benefit for people. Modern forest management often engages in prescribed burns to mitigate fire risk and promote natural forest cycles. However, controlled burns can turn into wildfires by mistake. Wildfires can be classified by cause of ignition, physical properties, combustible material present, and

7280-540: The uncontrolled use of fire in land-clearing and agriculture such as the slash-and-burn farming in Southeast Asia. In the tropics , farmers often practice the slash-and-burn method of clearing fields during the dry season . In middle latitudes , the most common human causes of wildfires are equipment generating sparks (chainsaws, grinders, mowers, etc.), overhead power lines , and arson . Arson may account for over 20% of human caused fires. However, in

7371-936: The use of planes, helicopter, or UAVs can provide a wider view and may be sufficient to monitor very large, low risk areas. These more sophisticated systems employ GPS and aircraft-mounted infrared or high-resolution visible cameras to identify and target wildfires. Satellite-mounted sensors such as Envisat 's Advanced Along Track Scanning Radiometer and European Remote-Sensing Satellite 's Along-Track Scanning Radiometer can measure infrared radiation emitted by fires, identifying hot spots greater than 39 °C (102 °F). The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 's Hazard Mapping System combines remote-sensing data from satellite sources such as Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite (GOES), Moderate-Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS), and Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer (AVHRR) for detection of fire and smoke plume locations. However, satellite detection

7462-411: The wildfires. While direct emissions of harmful pollutants can affect first responders and residents, wildfire smoke can also be transported over long distances and impact air quality across local, regional, and global scales. The health effects of wildfire smoke, such as worsening cardiovascular and respiratory conditions, extend beyond immediate exposure, contributing to nearly 16,000 annual deaths,

7553-519: The world may employ techniques such as wildland fire use (WFU) and prescribed or controlled burns . Wildland fire use refers to any fire of natural causes that is monitored but allowed to burn. Controlled burns are fires ignited by government agencies under less dangerous weather conditions. Other objectives can include maintenance of healthy forests, rangelands, and wetlands, and support of ecosystem diversity. Strategies for wildfire prevention, detection, control and suppression have varied over

7644-552: The world, such as those in Burning Mountain , New South Wales; Centralia , Pennsylvania; and several coal-sustained fires in China . They can also flare up unexpectedly and ignite nearby flammable material. (Fire) Good luck deleting this, Frost! (Fire) The spread of wildfires varies based on the flammable material present, its vertical arrangement and moisture content, and weather conditions. Fuel arrangement and density

7735-466: The years. One common and inexpensive technique to reduce the risk of uncontrolled wildfires is controlled burning : intentionally igniting smaller less-intense fires to minimize the amount of flammable material available for a potential wildfire. Vegetation may be burned periodically to limit the accumulation of plants and other debris that may serve as fuel, while also maintaining high species diversity. While other people claim that controlled burns and

7826-411: Was a common way to clear forest for farming and railroad construction. On the day of the Peshtigo fire, an eastward-moving cold front increased the wind speed and several slash-and-burn fires merged. A firestorm ensued. In the words of Gess and Lutz, in a firestorm "superheated flames of at least 2,000 degrees Fahrenheit ... advance on winds of 110 miles per hour or stronger. The diameter of such

7917-456: Was first recorded on 8 March 1772 by Jacques Leibax Montaigne; during the same apparition it was independently discovered by Charles Messier . It was also recorded in 1805 by Jean-Louis Pons , but was not recognized as the same object. Around 9 December 1805 comet Biela passed about 0.0366  AU (5.48 million  km ) from Earth. After the 1805 apparition a number of attempts were made by Gauss (1806) and Bessel (1806) to calculate

8008-516: Was made by Thomas Clausen , who had independently linked the comets. The comet appeared as predicted during its 1832 apparition, when it was first recovered by John Herschel on 24 September. The orbital elements and ephemeris calculated by Olbers for this return created something of a popular sensation, as they showed that the comet's coma would likely pass through the Earth's orbit around October 29, but at an Earth distance of about 0.55  AU (82 million  km ). Subsequent predictions, in

8099-509: Was only the third comet known to be periodic, after comets Halley and Encke . The comet was named after Biela, although there was initially some controversy due to a later but independent discovery by Jean-Félix Adolphe Gambart , who also provided the first mathematical proof linking the 1826 and 1805 comets (letters from Biela and Gambart were published in the same issue of the Astronomische Nachrichten ). A third claim

8190-794: Was organized in South Africa's Kruger National Park to validate fire detection products including the new VIIRS active fire data. In advance of that campaign, the Meraka Institute of the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research in Pretoria, South Africa, an early adopter of the VIIRS 375 m fire product, put it to use during several large wildfires in Kruger. Since 2021 NASA has provided active fire locations in near real-time via

8281-405: Was rediscovered on November 26, 1845, by Francesco de Vico . Initially sporting small, faint nebulosities, subsequent observations showed that something remarkable had happened to it. Matthew Fontaine Maury , observing on 14 January 1846, noted that an apparent companion was located 1 arc minute north of the comet. After this announcement many astronomers began observing the comet, and noted that

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