1PLP , 1ZLL , 2HYN
40-496: 5350 18821 ENSG00000198523 ENSMUSG00000038583 P26678 P61014 NM_002667 NM_001141927 NM_023129 NP_002658 NP_001135399 NP_075618 Phospholamban , also known as PLN or PLB , is a micropeptide protein that in humans is encoded by the PLN gene . Phospholamban is a 52- amino acid integral membrane protein that regulates the calcium (Ca) pump in cardiac muscle cells. This protein
80-482: A GPCR which can also respond to the hormonal peptide APLN . The CYREN gene, conserved in mammals, when alternatively spliced is predicted to produce three micropeptides. MRI-1 was previously found to be a modulator of retrovirus infection. The second predicted micropeptide, MRI-2, may be important in non-homologous end joining (NHEJ) of DNA double strand breaks. In Co-Immunoprecipitation experiments, MRI-2 bound to Ku70 and Ku80 , two subunits of Ku , which play
120-480: A 53 aa peptide, which localizes to the plasma membrane of leaf cells. The mechanism of ROT4 function is not well understood, but mutants have short rounded leaves, indicating that this peptide may be important in leaf morphogenesis. Brick1 (Brk1) encodes a 76 aa micropeptide, which is highly conserved in both plants and animals. In Z. mays, it was found to be involved in morphogenesis of leaf epithelia, by promoting multiple actin-dependent cell polarization events in
160-411: A custom database of all possible polypeptides. Liquid chromatography followed by tandem MS (LC-MS/MS) is performed to provide sequence information for translation products. Comparison of the transcriptomic and proteomics data can be used to confirm the presence of micropeptides. Phylogenetic conservation can be a useful tool, particularly when sifting through a large database of sORFs. The likelihood of
200-579: A major role in the NHEJ pathway. The 24 amino acid micropeptide, Humanin (HN), interacts with the apoptosis-inducing protein Bcl2-associated X protein (Bax). In its active state, Bax undergoes a conformational change which exposes membrane-targeting domains. This causes it to move from the cytosol to the mitochondrial membrane, where it inserts and releases apoptogenic proteins such as cytochrome c. By interacting with Bax, HN prevents Bax targeting of
240-848: A multitude of organisms. Only a small fraction of these with coding potential have had their expression and function confirmed. Those that have been functionally characterized, in general, have roles in cell signaling , organogenesis , and cellular physiology . As more micropeptides are discovered so are more of their functions. One regulatory function is that of peptoswitches, which inhibit expression of downstream coding sequences by stalling ribosomes , through their direct or indirect activation by small molecules. Various experimental techniques exist for identifying potential s ORFs and their translational products. These techniques are only useful for identification of sORF that may produce micropeptides and not for direct functional characterization. One method for finding potential sORFs, and therefore micropeptides,
280-433: A sORF resulting in a functional micropeptide is more likely if it is conserved across numerous species. However, this will not work for all sORFs. For example, those that are encoded by lncRNAs are less likely to be conserved given lncRNAs themselves do not have high sequence conservation. Further experimentation will be necessary to determine if a functional micropeptide is in fact produced. Custom antibodies targeted to
320-727: A single protein domain. The active form of microproteins are translated from smORF. The smORF codons which microproteins are translated from can be less than 100 codons. However, not all microproteins are small, and the name was given because their actions are analogous to miRNAs. The function of microproteins is post-translational regulators . Microproteins disrupt the formation of heterodimeric, homodimeric, or multimeric complexes. Furthermore, microproteins can interact with any protein that require functional dimers to function normally. The primary targets of microproteins are transcription factors that bind to DNA as dimers. Microproteins regulate these complexes by creating homotypic dimers with
360-504: A translated ORF. If a ribosome is bound at or near a sORF, it putatively encodes a micropeptide. Mass spectrometry (MS) is the gold standard for identifying and sequencing proteins. Using this technique, investigators are able to determine if polypeptides are, in fact, translated from a sORF. Proteogenomics combines proteomics, genomics, and transciptomics. This is important when looking for potential micropeptides. One method of using proteogenomics entails using RNA-Seq data to create
400-731: A uORF-encoded peptide (uPEP). Micropeptides lack an N-terminal signaling sequences, suggesting that they are likely to be localized to the cytoplasm . However, some micropeptides have been found in other cell compartments, as indicated by the existence of transmembrane micropeptides. They are found in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes. The sORFs from which micropeptides are translated can be encoded in 5' UTRs , small genes, or polycistronic mRNAs . Some micropeptide-coding genes were originally mis-annotated as long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs). Given their small size, sORFs were originally overlooked. However, hundreds of thousands of putative micropeptides have been identified through various techniques in
440-680: Is a small protein encoded from a small open reading frame (smORF). They are a class of protein with a single protein domain that are related to multidomain proteins. Microproteins regulate larger multidomain proteins at the post-translational level. Microproteins are analogous to microRNAs (miRNAs) and heterodimerize with their targets causing dominant and negative effects. In animals and plants, microproteins have been found to greatly influence biological processes. Because of microproteins' dominant effects on their targets, microproteins are currently being studied for potential applications in biotechnology. The first microprotein (miP) discovered
SECTION 10
#1732772391397480-413: Is a summary of recently identified eukaryotic micropeptide functions. The POLARIS (PLS) gene encodes a 36 aa micropeptide. It is necessary for proper vascular leaf patterning and cell expansion in the root. This micropeptide interacts with developmental PIN proteins to form a critical network for hormonal crosstalk between auxin, ethylene, and cytokinin. ROTUNDIFOLIA (ROT4 ) in A. thaliana encodes
520-594: Is activated. Down-regulation of this micropeptide enables mTORC1 activation by amino acid stimulation, promoting muscle regeneration. [REDACTED] This article was adapted from the following source under a CC BY 4.0 license ( 2018 ) ( reviewer reports ): Maria E. Sousa; Michael H. Farkas (13 December 2018). "Micropeptide" . PLOS Genetics . 14 (12): e1007764. doi : 10.1371/JOURNAL.PGEN.1007764 . ISSN 1553-7390 . PMC 6292567 . PMID 30543625 . Wikidata Q60017699 . Category:Peptides Microproteins A microprotein (miP)
560-468: Is beneficial in that it can be performed more quickly than developing a custom antibody. It is also useful for micropeptides for which no epitope can be targeted. This process entails cloning the full-length micropeptide cDNA into a plasmid containing a T7 or SP6 promoter. This method utilizes a cell-free protein-synthesizing system in the presence of S-methionine to produce the peptide of interest. The products can then be analyzed by gel electrophoresis and
600-451: Is encoded by a gene originally annotated as a lncRNA. Mln is expressed in all 3 types of skeletal muscle, and works similarly to the micropeptides phospholamban (Pln) in the cardiac muscle and sarcolipin (Sln) in slow (Type I) skeletal muscle. These micropeptides interact with sarcoplasmic reticulum Ca -ATPase (SERCA), a membrane pump responsible for regulating Ca uptake into the sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR). By inhibiting Ca uptake into
640-407: Is found as a pentamer and is a major substrate for the cAMP-dependent protein kinase ( PKA ) in cardiac muscle. In the unphosphorylated state, phospholamban is an inhibitor of cardiac muscle sarcoplasmic reticulum Ca-ATPase ( SERCA2 ) which transports calcium from cytosol into the sarcoplasmic reticulum . When phosphorylated (by PKA) - disinhibition of Ca-ATPase of SR leads to faster Ca uptake into
680-733: Is impaired. By inhibiting the histidine Kinase KinA, Sda prevents the activation of the transcription factor Spo0A, which is required for sporulation. In S. aureus , there are a group of micropeptides, 20-22 aa, that are excreted during host infection to disrupt neutrophil membranes, causing cell lysis. These micropeptides allow the bacterium to avoid degradation by the human immune systems' main defenses. Micropeptides have been discovered in eukaryotic organisms from Arabidopsis thaliana to humans. They play diverse roles in tissue and organ development, as well as maintenance and function once fully developed. While many are yet to be functionally characterized, and likely more remain to be discovered, below
720-429: Is important for embryogenesis. It is specifically expressed during late blastula and gastrula stages. During gastrulation , it is critical in promoting the internalization and animal-pole directed movement of mes endodermal cells. After gastrulation, Ela is expressed in the lateral mesoderm, endoderm, as well as the anterior, and posterior, notochord. Although it was annotated as a lncRNA in zebrafish, mouse, and human,
760-469: Is involved in epidermal differentiation. This polycistronic transcript encodes four similar peptides, which range between 11-32 aa in length. They function to truncate the transcription factor Shavenbaby (Svb). This converts Svb into an activator that directly regulates the expression of target effectors, including miniature (m) and shavenoid (sha) , which are together responsible for trichome formation. The Elabela gene ( Ela) (a.k.a. Apela, Toddler)
800-575: Is thought to interact directly with Enhancer of mRNA Decapping 4 (EDC4). ELABELA ( ELA) (a.k.a. APELA) is an endogenous hormone that is secreted as a 32 amino acid micropeptide by human embryonic stem cells . It is essential to maintain the self-renewal and pluripotency of human embryonic stem cells . Its signals in an autocrine fashion through the PI3/AKT pathway via an as yet unidentified cell surface receptor . In differentiating mesoendermal cells ELA binds to, and signals via, APLNR ,
840-422: Is through RNA sequencing ( RNA-Seq ). RNA-Seq uses next-generation sequencing (NGS) to determine which RNAs are expressed in a given cell, tissue, or organism at a specific point in time. This collection of data, known as a transcriptome , can then be used as a resource for finding potential sORFs. Because of the strong likelihood of sORFs less than 100 aa occurring by chance, further study is necessary to determine
SECTION 20
#1732772391397880-756: The S-labeled peptide is visualized using autoradiography. There are several repositories and databases that have been created for both sORFs and micropeptides. A repository for of small ORFs discovered by ribosome profiling can be found at sORFs.org. A repository of putative sORF-encoded peptides in Arabidopsis thaliana can be found at ARA-PEPs. A database of small proteins, especially encoded by non-coding RNAs can be found at SmProt. To date, most micropeptides have been identified in prokaryotic organisms. While most have yet to be fully characterized, of those that have been studied, many appear to be critical to
920-580: The 50S ribosomal subunit. Toxic proteins, such as ldrD , are toxic at high levels and can kill cells or inhibit growth, which functions to reduce the host cell's viability. In S. enterica, the MgtC virulence factor is involved in adaptation to low magnesium environments. The hydrophobic peptide MgrR, binds to MgtC, causing its degradation by the FtsH protease. The 46 aa Sda micropeptide, expressed by B. subtilis , represses sporulation when replication initiation
960-472: The 58-aa ORF was found to be highly conserved among vertebrate species. Ela is processed by removal of its N-terminus signal peptide and then secreted in the extracellular space . Its 34-aa mature peptide serves as the first endogenous ligand to a GPCR known as the Apelin Receptor . The genetic inactivation of Ela or Aplnr in zebrafish results in heartless phenotypes. Myoregulin (Mln)
1000-506: The SR, they cause muscle relaxation. Similarly, the endoregulin (ELN) and another-regulin (ALN) genes code for transmembrane micropeptides that contain the SERCA binding motif, and are conserved in mammals. Myomixer (Mymx) is encoded by the gene Gm7325, a muscle-specific peptide, 84 aa in length, which plays a role during embryogenesis in fusion and skeletal muscle formation. It localizes to
1040-432: The beta-adrenergic agonist epinephrine (released by sympathetic stimulation), may enhance the rate of cardiac myocyte relaxation. In addition, since SERCA2 is more active, the next action potential will cause an increased release of calcium, resulting in increased contraction (positive inotropic effect). When phospholamban is not phosphorylated, such as when PKA is inactive, it can interact with and inhibit SERCA. Thus,
1080-574: The developing leaf epidermis. Zm401p10 is an 89 aa micropeptide, which plays a role in normal pollen development in the tapetum. After mitosis it also is essential in the degradation of the tapetum. Zm908p11 is a micropeptide 97 aa in length, encoded by the Zm908 gene that is expressed in mature pollen grains. It localizes to the cytoplasm of pollen tubes, where it aids in their growth and development. The evolutionarily conserved polished rice ( pri ) gene, known as tarsal-less (tal) in D. melanogaster ,
1120-530: The functional basic helix–loop–helix (bHLH) homodimers. The first microprotein discovered in plants was the LITTLE ZIPPER (ZPR) protein. The LITTLE ZIPPER protein contains a leucine zipper domain but does not have the domains required for DNA binding and transcription activation. Thus, LITTLE ZIPPER protein is analogous to the ID protein. Despite not all proteins being small, in 2011, this class of protein
1160-473: The micropeptide of interest can be useful for quantifying expression or determining intracellular localization. As is the case with most proteins, low expression may make detection difficult. The small size of the micropeptide can also lead to difficulties in designing an epitope from which to target the antibody. Genome editing can be used to add FLAG/MYC or other small peptide tags to an endogenous sORF, thus creating fusion proteins. In most cases, this method
1200-405: The mitochondria, thereby blocking apoptosis. A micropeptide of 90aa, ‘ Small Regulatory Polypeptide of Amino Acid Response ’ or SPAAR, was found to be encoded in the lncRNA LINC00961 . It is conserved between human and mouse, and localizes to the late endosome/lysosome. SPAAR interacts with four subunits of the v-ATPase complex, inhibiting mTORC1 translocation to the lysosomal surface where it
1240-454: The overall effect of unphosphorylated phospholamban is to decrease contractility and the rate of muscle relaxation , thereby decreasing stroke volume and heart rate , respectively. Gene knockout of phospholamban results in animals with hyperdynamic hearts , with little apparent negative consequence. Mutations in this gene are a cause of inherited human dilated cardiomyopathy with refractory congestive heart failure . Phospholamban
Phospholamban - Misplaced Pages Continue
1280-545: The plasma membrane, associating with a fusogenic membrane protein, Myomaker (Mymk). In humans, the gene encoding Mymx is annotated as uncharacterized LOC101929726 . Orthologs are found in the turtle, frog and fish genomes as well. In humans, NoBody (non-annotated P-body dissociating polypeptide), a 68 aa micropeptide, was discovered in the long intervening noncoding RNA (lincRNA) LINC01420 . It has high sequence conservation among mammals, and localizes to P-bodies . It enriches proteins associated with 5’ mRNA decapping . It
1320-410: The posttranslational cleavage of larger polypeptides. In terms of size, micropeptides are considerably shorter than "canonical" proteins, which have an average length of 330 and 449 amino acids in prokaryotes and eukaryotes, respectively. Micropeptides are sometimes named according to their genomic location. For example, the translated product of an upstream open reading frame (uORF) might be called
1360-422: The sarcoplasmic reticulum, thereby contributing to the lusitropic response elicited in heart by beta-agonists . The protein is a key regulator of cardiac diastolic function . Mutations in this gene are a cause of inherited human dilated cardiomyopathy with refractory congestive heart failure . When phospholamban is phosphorylated by PKA, its ability to inhibit SERCA2 is lost. Thus, activators of PKA, such as
1400-605: The survival of these organisms. Because of their small size, prokaryotes are particularly susceptible to changes in their environment, and as such have developed methods to ensure their existence. Micropeptides expressed in E. coli exemplify bacterial environmental adaptations. Most of these have been classified into three groups: leader peptides , ribosomal proteins, and toxic proteins. Leader proteins regulate transcription and/or translation of proteins involved in amino acid metabolism when amino acids are scarce. Ribosomal proteins include L36 ( rpmJ ) and L34 ( rpmH ), two components of
1440-447: The targets and inhibit protein complex function. There are two types of miP inhibitions: homotypic miP inhibition and heterotypic miP inhibition. In homotypic miP inhibition, microproteins interact with proteins with similar protein-protein interaction (PPI) domain. In heterotypic miP inhibition, microproteins interact with proteins with different but compatible PPI domain. In both types of inhibition, microproteins interfere and prevent
1480-547: The validity of data obtained using this method. Ribosome profiling has been used to identify potential micropeptides in a growing number of organisms, including fruit flies, zebrafish, mice and humans. One method uses compounds such as harringtonine, puromycin or lactimidomycin to stop ribosomes at translation initiation sites. This indicates where active translation is taking place. Translation elongation inhibitors, such as emetine or cycloheximide, may also be used to obtain ribosome footprints which are more likely to result in
1520-690: Was discovered by Arnold Martin Katz and coworkers in 1974. PLN has been shown to interact with SLN and SERCA1 . This article incorporates text from the United States National Library of Medicine , which is in the public domain . Micropeptide Micropeptides (also referred to as microproteins ) are polypeptides with a length of less than 100-150 amino acids that are encoded by short open reading frames (sORFs). In this respect, they differ from many other active small polypeptides, which are produced through
1560-436: Was during a research in the early 1990s on genes for basic helix–loop–helix (bHLH) transcription factors from a murine erythroleukaemia cell cDNA library . The protein was found to be an inhibitor of DNA binding (ID protein), and it negatively regulated the transcription factor complex. The ID protein was 16 kDa and consisted of a helix-loop-helix (HLH) domain. The microprotein formed bHLH/HLH heterodimers which disrupted
1600-519: Was given the name microproteins because their negative regulatory actions are similar to those of miRNAs. Evolutionarily, the ID protein or proteins similar to ID found in all animals. In plants, microproteins are only found in higher order. However, the homeodomain transcription factors that belong to the three-amino-acid loop-extension (TALE) family are targets of microproteins, and these homeodomain proteins are conserved in animals, plants, and fungi. Microproteins are generally small proteins with
#396603