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51-494: Prefecture originally refers to a self-governing body or area since the tetrarchy , when Emperor Diocletian divided the Roman Empire into four districts (each divided into dioceses ), grouped under a Vicarius (a number of Roman provinces , listed under that article), although he maintained two pretorian prefectures as an administrative level above the also surviving dioceses (a few of which were split). As canon law

102-504: A préfecture is the capital city of a department , and by metonymy also designates the office and residence of the prefect. As there are 101 departments in France, there are 101 prefectures. A préfecture de région is the capital city of an administrative region . This is the city where the prefect - the appointed government representative - resides. In English, "prefecture" is used as the translation for todōfuken ( 都道府県 ) , which are

153-527: A leader, speaking in unison under his command. Only Lactantius , a contemporary of Diocletian and a deep ideological opponent of the Diocletianic state, referred to the tetrarchs as a simple multiplicity of rulers. Much modern scholarship was written without the term. Although Edward Gibbon pioneered the description of the Diocletianic government as a "New Empire", he never used the term "tetrarchy"; neither did Theodor Mommsen . It did not appear in

204-602: A port on the Adriatic coast, and Eboracum (modern York , in northern England near the Celtic tribes of modern Scotland and Ireland), were also significant centres for Maximian and Constantius respectively. In terms of regional jurisdiction there was no precise division among the four tetrarchs, and this period did not see the Roman state actually split up into four distinct sub-empires. Each emperor had his zone of influence within

255-620: A praetorian prefecture), see Roman province . In the West, the augustus Maximian controlled the provinces west of the Adriatic Sea and the Syrtis , and within that region his caesar , Constantius, controlled Gaul and Britain. In the East, the arrangements between the augustus Diocletian and his caesar , Galerius, were much more flexible. Although power was shared in the tetrarchic system,

306-413: A quarter of a kingdom as they saw fit; the Diocletianic tetrarchy was a college led by a single supreme leader. When later authors described the period, this is what they emphasized: Ammianus had Constantius II admonish Gallus for disobedience by appealing to the example in submission set by Diocletian's lesser colleagues; his successor Julian compared the Diocletianic tetrarchs to a chorus surrounding

357-550: Is divided into eighteen administrative regions ( French : régions , singular région [ʁeʒjɔ̃] ), of which thirteen are located in metropolitan France (in Europe), while the other five are overseas regions (not to be confused with the overseas collectivities , which have a semi-autonomous status). All of the thirteen metropolitan administrative regions (including Corsica as of 2019 ) are further subdivided into two to thirteen administrative departments , with

408-764: Is a recent designation, given to the overseas departments that have similar powers to those of the regions of metropolitan France . As integral parts of the French Republic , they are represented in the National Assembly , Senate and Economic and Social Council , elect a Member of the European Parliament (MEP) and use the euro as their currency. Although these territories have had these political powers since 1982, when France's decentralisation policy dictated that they be given elected regional councils along with other regional powers,

459-540: Is a table of former regions and which new region they became part of. (Occitania) Regions lack separate legislative authority and therefore cannot write their own statutory law. They levy their own taxes and, in return, receive a decreasing part of their budget from the central government, which gives them a portion of the taxes it levies. They also have considerable budgets managed by a regional council (conseil régional) made up of representatives voted into office in regional elections. A region's primary responsibility

510-493: Is an administrative division found in the second level of the administrative hierarchy. In addition to prefectures, this level also includes autonomous prefectures, leagues , and prefecture-level cities . The prefecture level comes under the province level , and in turn oversees the county level . In Italy a prefettura is the office of a prefetto , the representative of the Government in each province . In France,

561-592: Is strongly inspired by Roman law, it is not surprising that the Catholic Church has several offices under a prefect. That term occurs also in otherwise styled offices, such as the head of a congregation or department of the Roman Curia . Various ecclesiastical areas, too small for a diocese , are termed prefects. In Brazil , the prefecture ( prefeitura or prefeitura municipal in Portuguese )

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612-591: Is the executive branch of the government of each Brazilian municipality ( município in Portuguese). The term also refers to the office of the mayor ( prefeito in Portuguese). The Central African Republic is divided into twenty prefectures . From 1836 until 2011, modern Greece was divided into nomoi ( Greek : νομοί , singular νομός , nomos ) which formed the country's main administrative units. These are most commonly translated into English as "prefectures" or "counties". Each nomos

663-633: Is to build and furnish high schools. In March 2004, the French central government unveiled a controversial plan to transfer regulation of certain categories of non-teaching school staff to the regional authorities. Critics of this plan contended that tax revenue was insufficient to pay for the resulting costs, and that such measures would increase regional inequalities. In addition, regions have considerable discretionary power over infrastructural spending, e.g., education, public transit, universities and research, and assistance to business owners. This has meant that

714-539: The caesares . Initially Diocletian chose Maximian as his caesar in 285, raising him to co- augustus the following year; Maximian was to govern the western provinces and Diocletian would administer the eastern ones. The role of the augustus was likened to Jupiter , while his caesar was akin to Jupiter's son Hercules . Galerius and Constantius were appointed caesares in March 293. Diocletian and Maximian retired on 1 May 305, raising Galerius and Constantius to

765-451: The Battle of Chrysopolis , leaving Constantine in control of the entire empire. The Constantinian dynasty 's emperors retained some aspects of collegiate rule; Constantine appointed his son Constantius II as another caesar in 324, followed by Constans in 333 and his nephew Dalmatius in 335, and the three surviving sons of Constantine in 337 were declared joint augusti together, and

816-416: The prefect of each region's administrative centre's department also acting as the regional prefect. The overseas regions administratively consist of only one department each and hence also have the status of overseas departments. Most administrative regions also have the status of regional territorial collectivities , which comes with a local government , with departmental and communal collectivities below

867-434: The 75 second-level administrative subdivisions are 13 prefectures and 62 provinces . They are subdivisions of the 12 regions of Morocco . Each prefecture and province are subdivided in their turn into districts ( cercles , sing. cercle ), municipalities ( communes , sing. commune ) or urban municipalities ( communes urbaines , sing. commune urbaine ), and arrondissements in some metropolitan areas. Traditionally

918-548: The Latin world as well, where Pliny the Elder glossed it as follows: "each is the equivalent of a kingdom, and also part of one" ( regnorum instar singulae et in regna contribuuntur ). As used by the ancients, the term describes not only different governments, but also a different system of government from the Diocletianic arrangements. The Judaean tetrarchy was a set of four independent and distinct states, where each tetrarch ruled

969-523: The Roman Empire, but little more, mainly high command in a 'war theater'. Each tetrarch was himself often in the field, while delegating most of the administration to the hierarchic bureaucracy headed by his respective praetorian prefect , each supervising several vicarii , the governors-general in charge of another, lasting new administrative level, the civil diocese . For a listing of the provinces, now known as eparchy , within each quarter (known as

1020-542: The Tetrarchy a number of important military victories were secured. Both the dyarchic and the tetrarchic system ensured that an emperor was near to every crisis area to personally direct and remain in control of campaigns simultaneously on more than just one front. After suffering a defeat by the Persians in 296, Galerius crushed Narseh in 298—reversing a series of Roman defeats throughout the century—capturing members of

1071-975: The West and Licinius in the East. The tetrarchic system was at an end, although it took until 324 for Constantine to finally defeat Licinius, reunite the two halves of the Roman Empire and declare himself sole augustus . ( Whole, then East ) Galerius ( caesar , 1 March 293) Constantius I ( caesar , 1 March 293) ( West ) 28 October 306 – 11 November 308 (2 years and 14 days) Galerius ( caesar , 21 March 293) Constantius I ( caesar , 1 March 293) Maxentius (co- augustus , 306–308) Constantine I (rival augustus , 25 July 306; co- augustus , 307) ( East ) Maximian ( augustus , 21 March 293–1 May 305) Constantius I ( caesar , 1 March 293; co- augustus , 1 May 305–25 July 306) Severus II ( caesar , 1 May 305; co- augustus , August 306–April 307) Maxentius ( caesar , 28 October 306; junior co- augustus , April 307–May 311) Licinius (designated augustus for

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1122-569: The West, 11 November 308–311) Maximinus II ( caesar , 1 May 305; co- augustus , 1 May 310–early May 311) ( West ) Maximian ( augustus , 1 April 286–1 May 305) Galerius ( caesar , 21 March 293; co- augustus , 1 May 305–25 July 306) Severus II ( caesar , 1 May 305 –July 306) Maximinus II ( caesar , 1 May 305–25 July 306) ( West ) Maxentius (rival augustus , 306–307; co- augustus ; 308) Licinius (rival augustus , 308–310; co- augustus , 310–316; rival, 316–324) Regions of France France

1173-488: The claimants to the imperial office died or were killed in various civil wars. Constantine forced Maximian's suicide in 310. Galerius died naturally in 311. Maxentius was defeated by Constantine at the Battle of the Milvian Bridge in 312 and subsequently killed. Maximinus committed suicide at Tarsus in 313 after being defeated in battle by Licinius. By 313, therefore, there remained only two rulers: Constantine in

1224-632: The coins indicate which one of the four emperors is being shown. The Byzantine sculpture Portrait of the Four Tetrarchs shows the tetrarchs again with identical features and wearing the same military costume. One of the greatest problems facing emperors in the Third Century Crisis was that they were only ever able to personally command troops on one front at any one time. While Aurelian and Probus were prepared to accompany their armies thousands of miles between war regions, this

1275-657: The concept of the division of the empire under multiple joint emperors endured until the Fall of the Western Roman Empire . In the Eastern Roman Empire , augusti and caesares continued to be appointed sporadically. The term tetrarchy (from the Greek : τετραρχία , tetrarchia , "leadership of four [people]") describes any form of government where power is divided among four individuals. Although

1326-536: The eastern regions of the empire while Maximian similarly took charge of the western regions. In 293, Diocletian thought that more focus was needed on both civic and military problems, so with Maximian's consent, he expanded the imperial college by appointing two caesares (one responsible to each augustus )— Galerius and Constantius I . In 305, the senior emperors jointly abdicated and retired, allowing Constantius and Galerius to be elevated in rank to augustus . They in turn appointed two new caesares — Severus II in

1377-522: The eastern steppes) at the Rhine and Danube . These centres are known as the tetrarchic capitals. Although Rome ceased to be an operational capital, Rome continued to be nominal capital of the entire Roman Empire, not reduced to the status of a province but under its own, unique Prefect of the city ( praefectus urbi , later copied in Constantinople). The four tetrarchic capitals were: Aquileia ,

1428-439: The fifth. In 2014, the French parliament passed a law reducing the number of metropolitan regions from 22 to 13 effective 1 January 2016. The law gave interim names for most of the new regions by combining the names of the former regions, e.g. the region composed of Aquitaine , Poitou-Charentes and Limousin was temporarily called Aquitaine-Limousin-Poitou-Charentes . However, the combined region of Upper and Lower Normandy

1479-450: The heads of wealthy regions such as Île-de-France or Rhône-Alpes can be high-profile positions. Proposals to give regions limited legislative autonomy have met with considerable resistance; others propose transferring certain powers from the departments to their respective regions, leaving the former with limited authority. Number of regions controlled by each coalition since 1986 . Overseas region ( French : Région d'outre-mer )

1530-629: The imperial household and a substantial amount of booty and gaining a highly favourable peace treaty, which secured peace between the two powers for a generation. Similarly, Constantius defeated the British usurper Allectus , Maximian pacified the Gauls, and Diocletian crushed the revolt of Domitianus in Egypt . When in 305 the 20-year term of Diocletian and Maximian ended, both abdicated. Their caesares , Galerius and Constantius Chlorus, were both raised to

1581-564: The increase of the number of "xian" and the decrease of their sizes over time in the Chinese history. In the context of Chinese history during or after the Tang dynasty , the word "prefecture" is used to translate zhou (Wade–Giles chou ( 州 ), another ancient unit of administration in China, equivalent to the modern province . In modern-day China , the prefecture ( 地区 ; pinyin : dìqū )

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1632-558: The literature until used in 1887 by schoolmaster Hermann Schiller in a two-volume handbook on the Roman Empire ( Geschichte der Römischen Kaiserzeit ), to wit: " die diokletianische Tetrarchie ". Even so, the term did not catch on in the literature until Otto Seeck used it in 1897. The first phase, sometimes referred to as the diarchy ("rule of two"), involved the designation of the general Maximian as co-emperor—firstly as caesar (heir apparent) in 285, followed by his promotion to augustus in 286. Diocletian took care of matters in

1683-451: The lowest level administrative division in Korea and can be translated into "Petty Prefecture" in the modern sense. It was below Gun ( 군 , 郡 ; "county") in the administrative hierarchy. Dohobu ( 도호부 ; 都護府 ) was a higher level administrative division and can be translated into "Protectorate General", "Greater Prefecture", "Metropolitan Prefecture", or "Martial Prefecture" in

1734-453: The main subdivisions of Japan. They consist of 43 prefectures (県 ken) proper, two urban prefectures (府 fu, Osaka and Kyoto), one "circuit" or "territory" (道 dō, Hokkaido) and one "metropolis" (都 to, Tokyo). Before the end of World War II, the word was also used for overseas areas 庁 (chō)、州 (shu) and 道 (dō, in Korea). Until 1894 Hyeon ( Korean :  현 ; Hanja :  縣 ) was

1785-652: The modern sense. The capital, Hanyang ( Seoul ), can sometimes be translated as "Hanseong Prefecture". In 1895, Hyeon and Dohobu divisions were abolished. From 1910 to 1949, the term "prefecture" was used to translate Bu ( 부 ; 府 ). Since 1949 neither Hyeon nor Bu have been used, and there has been no division in either the South Korean or North Korean administrative system which translates as "prefecture". Mongolian prefectures ( Aimags ) were adopted during Qing dynasty's rule . Today these are usually translated as "provinces". In Morocco ,

1836-528: The position of caesar to Severus. At the same time, Maxentius , the son of Maximian, resented being left out of the new arrangements, so he rebelled against and defeated Severus before forcing him to abdicate and then arranging his murder in 307. Maxentius and Maximian both then declared themselves augusti . By 308 there were therefore no fewer than four claimants to the rank of augustus (Galerius, Constantine, Maximian and Maxentius), and only one to that of caesar (Maximinus Daza). In 308 Galerius, together with

1887-508: The prefecture as being the City Hall and the prefect as being the equivalent of a mayor and commissioner until recently; now the prefectures and prefect are analogous with the figure of Town Clerk . Tetrarchy The Tetrarchy was the system instituted by Roman emperor Diocletian in 293 AD to govern the ancient Roman Empire by dividing it between two emperors, the augusti , and their junior colleagues and designated successors,

1938-401: The prefectures as separate administrative units, and transformed them into regional units within the country's thirteen administrative regions . When used in the context of Chinese history , especially China before the Tang dynasty , the word "prefecture" is used to translate xian ( 縣 ). This unit of administration is translated as "county" when used in a contemporary context, because of

1989-427: The promotion of the augustus Licinius as their superior. After an abortive attempt to placate both Constantine and Maximinus with the meaningless title filius augusti ("son of the augustus ", essentially an alternative title for caesar ), they both had to be recognised as Augusti in 309. However, four full Augusti all at odds with each other did not bode well for the tetrarchic system. Between 309 and 313 most of

2040-408: The public image of the four members of the imperial college was carefully managed to give the appearance of a united empire ( patrimonium indivisum ). This was especially important after the numerous civil wars of the 3rd century . The tetrarchs appeared identical in all official portraits. Coinage dating from the tetrarchic period depicts every emperor with identical features—only the inscriptions on

2091-455: The rank of augustus , and two new caesares were appointed: Maximinus Daza ( caesar to Galerius) and Valerius Severus ( caesar to Constantius). These four formed the second tetrarchy. However, the system broke down very quickly thereafter. When Constantius died in 306, Constantine , Constantius' son, was proclaimed augustus by his father's troops; however, Galerius instead chose to promote Severus to augustus while granting Constantine

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2142-457: The rank of augustus . Their places as caesares were in turn taken by Valerius Severus and Maximinus Daza . The orderly system of two senior and two junior rulers endured until Constantius died in July 306, and his son Constantine was unilaterally acclaimed augustus and caesar by his father's army. Maximian's son Maxentius contested Severus' title, styled himself princeps invictus , and

2193-812: The region level. The exceptions are Corsica, French Guiana , Mayotte and Martinique , where region and department functions are managed by single local governments having consolidated jurisdiction and which are known as single territorial collectivities . The term région was officially created by the Law of Decentralisation (2 March 1982), which also gave regions their legal status. The first direct elections for regional representatives took place on 16 March 1986. Between 1982 and 2015, there were 22 regions in Metropolitan France. Before 2011, there were four overseas regions ( French Guiana , Guadeloupe , Martinique , and Réunion ); in 2011 Mayotte became

2244-700: The retired emperor Diocletian and the supposedly retired Maximian, called an imperial "conference" at Carnuntum on the River Danube. The council agreed that Licinius would become augustus in the West, with Constantine as his caesar . In the East, Galerius remained augustus and Maximinus remained his caesar . Maximian was to retire, and Maxentius was declared a usurper. This agreement proved disastrous: by 308 Maxentius had become de facto ruler of Italy and Africa even without any imperial status, and neither Constantine nor Maximinus—who had both been caesares since 306 and 305 respectively—were prepared to tolerate

2295-452: The term "tetrarch" was current in antiquity, it was never used in the imperial college (as it's often called) under Diocletian. Instead, the term was used to describe independent portions of a kingdom that were ruled under separate leaders. The tetrarchy of Judaea , established after the death of Herod the Great , is the most famous example of the antique tetrarchy. The term was understood in

2346-416: The west under Constantius, and Maximinus in the east under Galerius—thereby creating the second Tetrarchy. The four tetrarchs based themselves not at Rome but in other cities closer to the frontiers, mainly intended as headquarters for the defence of the empire against bordering rivals (notably Sassanian Persia ) and barbarians (mainly Germanic, and an unending sequence of nomadic or displaced tribes from

2397-430: The western part of the empire, while Licinius was left in control of the east on the death of Maximinus Daza. Constantine and Licinius jointly recognized their sons – Crispus , Constantine II , and Licinius II – as caesares in March 317. Ultimately the tetrarchic system lasted until c. 324, when mutually destructive civil wars eliminated most of the claimants to power: Licinius resigned as augustus after losing

2448-412: Was appointed caesar by his retired father in 306. Severus surrendered to Maximian and Maxentius in 307. Maxentius and Constantine were both recognized as augusti by Maximian that same year. Galerius appointed Licinius augustus for the west in 308 and elevated Maximinus Daza to augustus in 310. Constantine's victory over Maxentius at the Battle of the Milvian Bridge in 312 left him in control of

2499-533: Was headed by a prefect ( νομάρχης , nomarches ), who was a ministerial appointee until ca. 1990, but was then elected by direct popular vote in a process of decentralization that saw the prefectures become local government units. Municipal elections in Greece are held every four years and voting for the election of prefects and mayors was carried out concurrently but with separate ballots. The 2010 Kallikratis plan , which took effect on 1 January 2011, abolished

2550-439: Was not an ideal solution. Furthermore, it was risky for an emperor to delegate power in his absence to a subordinate general, who might win a victory and then be proclaimed as a rival emperor himself by his troops (which often happened). All members of the imperial college, on the other hand, were of essentially equal rank, despite two being senior emperors and two being junior; their functions and authorities were also equal. Under

2601-580: Was simply called "Normandy" ( Normandie ). Permanent names were proposed by the new regional councils by 1 July 2016 and new names confirmed by the Conseil d'État by 30 September 2016. The legislation defining the new regions also allowed the Centre region to officially change its name to " Centre-Val de Loire " with effect from January 2015. Two regions, Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes and Bourgogne-Franche-Comté , opted to retain their interim names. Given below

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