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59-404: A programmer , computer programmer or coder is an author of computer source code – someone with skill in computer programming . The professional titles software developer and software engineer are used for jobs that require a programmer. Generally, a programmer writes code in a computer language and with an intent to build software that achieves some goal . Sometimes
118-482: A flight simulator . Simple programs can be written in a few hours. More complex ones may require more than a year of work, while others are never considered 'complete' but rather are continuously improved as long as they stay in use. In most cases, several programmers work together as a team under a senior programmer's supervision. Programming editors, also known as source code editors , are text editors that are specifically designed for programmers or developers to write
177-644: A work for hire (e.g., hired to write a city tour guide by a municipal government that totally owns the copyright to the finished work), or when writing material using intellectual property owned by others (such as when writing a novel or screenplay that is a new installment in an already established media franchise). In the United States, the Copyright Clause of the Constitution of the United States ( Article I, Section 8, Clause 8 ) provides
236-431: A certain number of copies had sold. In Canada, this practice occurred during the 1890s, but was not commonplace until the 1920s. Established and successful authors may receive advance payments, set against future royalties, but this is no longer common practice. Most independent publishers pay royalties as a percentage of net receipts – how net receipts are calculated varies from publisher to publisher. Under this arrangement,
295-461: A certain time. It enters the public domain , where it can be used without limit. Copyright laws in many jurisdictions – mostly following the lead of the United States, in which the entertainment and publishing industries have very strong lobbying power – have been amended repeatedly since their inception, to extend the length of this fixed period where the work is exclusively controlled by the copyright holder. Technically, someone owns their work from
354-450: A demand for software. Many of these programs were written in-house by full-time staff programmers; some were distributed between users of a particular machine for no charge, while others were sold on a commercial basis. Other firms, such as Computer Sciences Corporation (founded in 1959), also started to grow. Computer manufacturers soon started bundling operating systems , system software and programming environments with their machines;
413-498: A different way: usually a set fee or a per word rate rather than on a percentage of sales. In the year 2016, according to the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, nearly 130,000 people worked in the country as authors, making an average of $ 61,240 per year. Computer Sciences Corporation Computer Sciences Corporation ( CSC ) was an American multinational corporation that provided information technology (IT) services and professional services. On April 3, 2017, it merged with
472-418: A further decline of -9 percent from 2019 to 2029, a decline of -10 percent from 2021 to 2031. and then a decline of -11 percent from 2022 to 2032. Since computer programming can be done from anywhere in the world, companies sometimes hire programmers in countries where wages are lower. However, for software developers BLS projects for 2019 to 2029 a 22% increase in employment, from 1,469,200 to 1,785,200 jobs with
531-588: A government scheme such as the ELR (educational lending right) and PLR (public lending right) schemes in Australia. Under these schemes, authors are paid a fee for the number of copies of their books in educational and/or public libraries. These days, many authors supplement their income from book sales with public speaking engagements, school visits, residencies, grants, and teaching positions. Ghostwriters , technical writers, and textbooks writers are typically paid in
590-401: A lack of general interest in science and mathematics and also out of an apparent fear that programming will be subject to the same pressures as manufacturing and agriculture careers. For programmers, the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) Occupational Outlook originally predicted a growth for programmers of 12 percent from 2010 to 2020 and thereafter a decline of -7 percent from 2016 to 2026,
649-409: A median base salary of $ 110,000 per year. This prediction is lower than the earlier 2010 to 2020 predicted increase of 30% for software developers. Though the distinction is somewhat ambiguous, software developers engage in a wider array of aspects of application development and are generally higher skilled than programmers, making outsourcing less of a risk. Another reason for the decline for programmers
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#1732779520624708-587: A nature photographer. The photographer asserted authorship of the photographs, which the United States Copyright Office denied, stating: "To qualify as a work of 'authorship' a work must be created by a human being". More recently, questions have arisen as to whether images or text created by a generative artificial intelligence have an author. Holding the title of "author" over any "literary, dramatic, musical, artistic, [or] certain other intellectual works" gives rights to this person,
767-493: A programmer or job position is identified by the language used or target platform. For example, assembly programmer , web developer . The job titles that include programming tasks have differing connotations across the computer industry and to different individuals. The following are notable descriptions. A software developer primarily implements software based on specifications and fixes bugs . Other duties may include reviewing code changes and testing . To achieve
826-405: A programmer, although professional certifications are commonly held by programmers. Programming is considered a profession . Programmers' work varies widely depending on the type of business for which they are writing programs. For example, the instructions involved in updating financial records are very different from those required to duplicate conditions on an aircraft for pilots training in
885-438: A team of programmers, communicating with customers, managers and other engineers, considering system stability and quality, and exploring software development methodologies. Sometimes, a software engineer is required to have a degree in software engineering, computer engineering , or computer science. Some countries legally require an engineering degree to be called engineer . British countess and mathematician Ada Lovelace
944-416: A work does not have to be sought in the one who produced it, "as if it were always in the end, through the more or less transparent allegory of the fiction, the voice of a single person, the author 'confiding' in us." The psyche, culture, fanaticism of an author can be disregarded when interpreting a text, because the words are rich enough themselves with all of the traditions of language. To expose meanings in
1003-406: A working, program-controlled, electronic computer. From 1943 to 1945, per computer scientist Wolfgang K. Giloi and AI professor Raúl Rojas et al., Zuse created the first, high-level programming language , Plankalkül . Members of the 1945 ENIAC programming team of Kay McNulty , Betty Jennings , Betty Snyder , Marlyn Wescoff , Fran Bilas and Ruth Lichterman have since been credited as
1062-448: A written work and producing the interpretation or meaning in a written work that both Barthes and Foucault are interested in. Foucault warns of the risks of keeping the author's name in mind during interpretation, because it could affect the value and meaning with which one handles an interpretation. Literary critics Barthes and Foucault suggest that readers should not rely on or look for the notion of one overarching voice when interpreting
1121-436: A written work without appealing to the celebrity of an author, their tastes, passions, vices, is, to Barthes, to allow language to speak, rather than author. Michel Foucault argues in his essay "What is an author?" (1969) that all authors are writers, but not all writers are authors. He states that "a private letter may have a signatory—it does not have an author." For a reader to assign the title of author upon any written work
1180-537: A written work, because of the complications inherent with a writer's title of "author." They warn of the dangers interpretations could suffer from when associating the subject of inherently meaningful words and language with the personality of one authorial voice. Instead, readers should allow a text to be interpreted in terms of the language as "author." Self-publishing is a model where the author takes full responsibility and control of arranging financing, editing, printing, and distribution of their own work. In other words,
1239-399: Is not one of harmony and neutrality. In particular for the writer, their authorship in their work makes their work part of their identity, and there is much at stake personally over the negotiation of authority over that identity. However, it is the editor who has "the power to impose the dominant definition of the writer and therefore to delimit the population of those entitled to take part in
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#17327795206241298-522: Is often considered to be the first computer programmer. She authored an algorithm , which was published in October 1842, for calculating Bernoulli numbers on the Charles Babbage analytical engine . Because the machine was not completed in her lifetime, she never experienced the algorithm in action. In 1941, German civil engineer Konrad Zuse was the first person to execute a program on
1357-435: Is the creator of an original work that has been published, whether that work is in written, graphic, or recorded medium. The creation of such a work is an act of authorship . Thus, a sculptor , painter , or composer , is an author of their respective sculptures, paintings, or compositions, even though in common parlance, an author is often thought of as the writer of a book , article , play , or other written work . In
1416-545: Is their skills are being merged with other professions, such as developers, as employers increase the requirements for a position over time. Then there is the additional concern that recent advances in artificial intelligence might impact the demand for future generations of Software professions. As of 2024 in Japan , the demand for programmers is increasing rapidly. Numerous programming schools have opened to meet this demand, including TechAcademy , Tech i.s. and NinjaCode . On
1475-418: Is to attribute certain standards upon the text which, for Foucault, are working in conjunction with the idea of "the author function." Foucault's author function is the idea that an author exists only as a function of a written work, a part of its structure, but not necessarily part of the interpretive process. The author's name "indicates the status of the discourse within a society and culture," and at one time
1534-587: The IBM 1620 came with the 1620 Symbolic Programming System and FORTRAN . The industry expanded greatly with the rise of the personal computer (PC) in the mid-1970s, which brought computing to the average office worker. In the following years, the PC also helped create a constantly growing market for games, applications and utility software. This resulted in increased demand for software developers for that period of time. Computer programmers write, test, debug , and maintain
1593-517: The Congress with the power of "securing for limited Times to Authors and Inventors the exclusive Right to their respective Writings and Discoveries". The language regarding authors was derived from proposals by Charles Pinckney , "to secure to authors exclusive rights for a limited time", and by James Madison , "to secure to literary authors their copyrights for a limited time", or, in the alternative, "to encourage, by proper premiums & Provisions,
1652-652: The Enterprise Services line of business of HP Enterprise (formerly Electronic Data Systems ) to create DXC Technology . CSC was founded in April 1959 in Los Angeles , California, by Roy Nutt and Fletcher Jones . CSC initially provided programming tools such as assembler and compiler software. In the 1960s, CSC provided software programming services to major computer manufacturers like IBM and Honeywell and secured their first contracts for
1711-773: The U.S. public sector with NASA (among others). By 1963, CSC became the largest software company in the United States and the first software company to be listed on the American Stock Exchange . By the end of 1968, CSC was listed on the New York Stock Exchange and had operations in Canada , India , the United Kingdom , Germany , Spain , Italy , Brazil , and the Netherlands . In 1967, CSC set up Computicket Corp. to compete in
1770-558: The acquisition of Fixnetix, a provider of front-office managed trading solutions in capital markets. CSC also acquired Fruition Partners, a provider of technology-enabled solutions for the service-management sector during the month. In November 2015, CSC agreed to acquire the shares of UXC , an IT services company based in Australia in a deal valued at A$ 427.6 million ( US$ 309 million ). In December 2015, business technology and services provider, Xchanging , agreed to be purchased by CSC. In February 2016, CSC announced it
1829-614: The advancement of useful knowledge and discoveries". Both proposals were referred to the Committee of Detail , which reported back a proposal containing the final language, which was incorporated into the Constitution by unanimous agreement of the convention. In literary theory, critics find complications in the term author beyond what constitutes authorship in a legal setting. In the wake of postmodern literature , critics such as Roland Barthes and Michel Foucault have examined
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1888-407: The author also acts as the publisher of their work. With commissioned publishing, the publisher makes all the publication arrangements and the author covers all expenses. The author of a work may receive a percentage calculated on a wholesale or a specific price or a fixed amount on each book sold. Publishers, at times, reduced the risk of this type of arrangement, by agreeing only to pay this after
1947-410: The author does not pay anything towards the expense of publication. The costs and financial risk are all carried by the publisher, who will then take the greatest percentage of the receipts. See Compensation for more. Vanity publishers normally charge a flat fee for arranging publication, offer a platform for selling, and then take a percentage of the sale of every copy of a book. The author receives
2006-421: The book sales are not the publishers' main source of income, but instead the fees that the authors are charged to initially produce the book are. Because of this, the vanity publishers need not invest in making books marketable as much as other publishers need to. This leads to low quality books being introduced to the market. The relationship between the author and the editor , often the author's only liaison to
2065-432: The case of a work for hire , the employer or commissioning party is considered the author of the work, even if they did not write or otherwise create the work, but merely instructed another individual to do so. Typically, the first owner of a copyright is the person who created the work, i.e. the author. If more than one person created the work, then a case of joint authorship takes place. Copyright laws differ around
2124-528: The corporate headquarters of the company were relocated from El Segundo , California, to Falls Church , Virginia . CSC had been a Fortune 500 Company since 1995, coming in at 162 in the 2012 rankings. In fiscal 2013, CSC acquired ServiceMesh (cloud management) for $ 282M, Infochimps (a big data platform) for $ 27M, 42Six (analytics for national intelligence) for $ 35 million, iSOFT (application solutions) for cash and debt, and AppLabs (application testing) for $ 171M. In May 2015, CSC announced plans to split
2183-409: The detailed instructions, called computer programs , that computers must follow to perform their functions. Programmers also conceive, design, and test logical structures for solving problems by computer. Many technical innovations in programming — advanced computing technologies and sophisticated new languages and programming tools — have redefined the role of a programmer and elevated much of
2242-583: The first professional computer programmers. The first company founded specifically to provide software products and services was the Computer Usage Company in 1955. Before that time, computers were programmed either by customers or the few commercial computer manufacturers of the time, such as Sperry Rand and IBM . The software industry expanded in the early 1960s, almost immediately after computers were first sold in mass-produced quantities. Universities, governments, and businesses created
2301-725: The fledgling electronic ticket market competing with Ticketron but lost $ 13 million and discontinued the service in 1970. In the 1970s and 1980s, CSC expanded globally winning large contracts for the finance and defense industries and through acquisitions in Europe and Australia. In 2000, CSC founded a joint-venture called Innovative Banking Solutions AG in Wiesbaden , Germany, to market their newly developed SAP solution for mortgage companies. Since its beginnings in 1959, company headquarters had been in California . On March 29, 2008,
2360-437: The focus from the reader-audience and putting a strain on the relationship between authors and editors and on writing as a social act. Even the book review by the editors has more significance than the readership's reception. Authors rely on advance fees, royalty payments, adaptation of work to a screenplay, and fees collected from giving speeches. A standard contract for an author will usually include provision for payment in
2419-488: The form of an advance and royalties. Usually, an author's book must earn the advance before any further royalties are paid. For example, if an author is paid a modest advance of $ 2000, and their royalty rate is 10% of a book priced at $ 20 – that is, $ 2 per book – the book will need to sell 1000 copies before any further payment will be made. Publishers typically withhold payment of a percentage of royalties earned against returns. In some countries, authors also earn income from
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2478-466: The other hand, despite the fact that there are more than 1.2 million programmers in Japan as of 2020, more than 40% of Japanese companies say they do not have enough IT personnel, including programmers; by 2030, the number of programmers will exceed 1.6 million, but about 800 000 people, including programmers A shortage of engineers is expected to occur. Author In legal discourse, an author
2537-399: The owner of the copyright, especially the exclusive right to engage in or authorize any production or distribution of their work. Any person or entity wishing to use intellectual property held under copyright must receive permission from the copyright holder to use this work, and often will be asked to pay for the use of copyrighted material. The copyrights on intellectual work expire after
2596-479: The process of its production. Every line of written text is a mere reflection of references from any of a multitude of traditions, or, as Barthes puts it, "the text is a tissue of quotations drawn from the innumerable centers of culture"; it is never original. With this, the perspective of the author is removed from the text, and the limits formerly imposed by the idea of one authorial voice, one ultimate and universal meaning, are destroyed. The explanation and meaning of
2655-433: The programming work done today. Job titles and descriptions may vary, depending on the organization. Programmers work in many settings, including corporate information technology (IT) departments, big software companies , small service firms and government entities of all sizes. Many professional programmers also work for consulting companies at client sites as contractors . Licensing is not typically required to work as
2714-432: The public sector business from its commercial and international business. In August, it was announced that CSC's Government Service business would merge with SRA International to form a new company — CSRA —at the end of November 2015. In July 2015, CSC and HCL Technologies announced the signing of a joint venture agreement to form a banking software and services company, Celeriti FinTech. In September 2015, CSC closed
2773-498: The publishing company, is typically characterized as the site of tension. For the author to reach their audience, often through publication, the work usually must attract the attention of the editor. The idea of the author as the sole meaning-maker of necessity changes to include the influences of the editor and the publisher to engage the audience in writing as a social act. There are three principal kinds of editing: Pierre Bourdieu 's essay "The Field of Cultural Production" depicts
2832-405: The publishing industry as a "space of literary or artistic position-takings," also called the "field of struggles," which is defined by the tension and movement inherent among the various positions in the field. Bourdieu claims that the "field of position-takings [...] is not the product of coherence-seeking intention or objective consensus," meaning that an industry characterized by position-takings
2891-483: The required skills for the job, they might obtain a computer science or associate degree, attend a programming boot camp or be self-taught . A software engineer usually is responsible for the same tasks as a developer plus broader responsibilities of software engineering including architecting and designing new features and applications, targeting new platforms, managing the software development lifecycle (design, implementation, testing, and deployment), leading
2950-415: The rest of the money made. Most materials published this way are for niche groups and not for large audiences. Vanity publishing, or subsidy publishing, is stigmatized in the professional world. In 1983, Bill Henderson defined vanity publishers as people who would "publish anything for which an author will pay, usually at a loss for the author and a nice profit for the publisher." In subsidy publishing,
3009-568: The right to parody or satirize ), and many other interacting complications. Authors may portion out the different rights that they hold to different parties at different times, and for different purposes or uses, such as the right to adapt a plot into a film, television series, or video game. If another party chooses to adapt the work, they may have to alter plot elements or character names in order to avoid infringing previous adaptations. An author may also not have rights when working under contract that they would otherwise have, such as when creating
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#17327795206243068-465: The role and relevance of authorship to the meaning or interpretation of a literary text. Barthes challenges the idea that a text can be attributed to any single author. He writes, in his essay "Death of the Author" (1968), that "it is language which speaks, not the author." The words and language of a text itself determine and expose meaning for Barthes, and not someone possessing legal responsibility for
3127-455: The source code of an application or a program. Most of these editors include features useful for programmers, which may include color syntax highlighting , auto indentation, auto-complete , bracket matching, syntax check , and allows plug-ins . These features aid the users during coding, debugging and testing. According to BBC News , 17% of computer science students could not find work in their field six months after graduation in 2009 which
3186-459: The struggle to define the writer". As "cultural investors," publishers rely on the editor position to identify a good investment in "cultural capital" which may grow to yield economic capital across all positions. According to the studies of James Curran, the system of shared values among editors in Britain has generated a pressure among authors to write to fit the editors' expectations, removing
3245-411: The time it's created. A notable aspect of authorship emerges with copyright in that, in many jurisdictions, it can be passed down to another, upon one's death. The person who inherits the copyright is not the author, but has access to the same legal benefits. Intellectual property laws are complex. Works of fiction involve trademark law , likeness rights , fair use rights held by the public (including
3304-479: The world. The United States Copyright Office , for example, defines copyright as "a form of protection provided by the laws of the United States (title 17, U.S. Code) to authors of 'original works of authorship. ' " Some works are considered to be authorless. For example, the monkey selfie copyright dispute in the 2010s involved photographs taken by Celebes crested macaques using equipment belonging to
3363-463: Was moving its headquarters to Tysons in Fairfax County, Virginia . On April 3, 2017, it merged with HPE Enterprise Services to create DXC Technology . CSC once ranked among the leading IT service providers in the world. Geographically, CSC had major operations throughout North America, Europe, Asia, and Australia. The company operated in three broad service lines or sectors until
3422-604: Was the highest rate of the university subjects surveyed while 0% of medical students were unemployed in the same survey. After the crash of the dot-com bubble (1999–2001) and the Great Recession (2008), many U.S. programmers were left without work or with lower wages. In addition, enrollment in computer-related degrees and other STEM degrees (STEM attrition) in the US has been dropping for years, especially for women, which, according to Beaubouef and Mason, could be attributed to
3481-403: Was used as an anchor for interpreting a text, a practice which Barthes would argue is not a particularly relevant or valid endeavor. Expanding upon Foucault's position, Alexander Nehamas writes that Foucault suggests "an author [...] is whoever can be understood to have produced a particular text as we interpret it," not necessarily who penned the text. It is this distinction between producing
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