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68-623: Product Design Process: The product design process is a set of strategic and tactical activities, from idea generation to commercialization, used to create a product design. In a systematic approach, product designers conceptualize and evaluate ideas, turning them into tangible inventions and products. The product designer's role is to combine art, science, and technology to create new products that people can use. Their evolving role has been facilitated by digital tools that now allow designers to do things that include communicate , visualize, analyze, 3D modeling and actually produce tangible ideas in

136-583: A systematic determination and assessment of a subject's merit, worth and significance, using criteria governed by a set of standards . It can assist an organization, program, design, project or any other intervention or initiative to assess any aim, realizable concept/proposal, or any alternative, to help in decision-making ; or to generate the degree of achievement or value in regard to the aim and objectives and results of any such action that has been completed. The primary purpose of evaluation, in addition to gaining insight into prior or existing initiatives,

204-402: A common ideology entitled liberal democracy . Important principles of this ideology include freedom of choice, the uniqueness of the individual and empirical inquiry grounded in objectivity . He also contends that they are all based on subjectivist ethics, in which ethical conduct is based on the subjective or intuitive experience of an individual or group. One form of subjectivist ethics

272-452: A contested term", as "evaluators" use the term evaluation to describe an assessment, or investigation of a program whilst others simply understand evaluation as being synonymous with applied research. There are two functions considering to the evaluation purpose. Formative Evaluations provide the information on improving a product or a process. Summative Evaluations provide information of short-term effectiveness or long-term impact for deciding

340-592: A design can be brief (a quick sketch) or lengthy and complicated, involving considerable research, negotiation, reflection, modeling , interactive adjustment, and re-design. Designing is also a widespread activity outside of the professions of those formally recognized as designers. In his influential book The Sciences of the Artificial, the interdisciplinary scientist Herbert A. Simon proposed that, "Everyone designs who devises courses of action aimed at changing existing situations into preferred ones." According to

408-512: A first impression of us. People usually do not appreciate a rude person even if they are good looking. Similarly, a product can have an attractive appearance but if its function does not follow through it will most likely drop in regards to consumer interest. In this sense, designers are like communicators, they use the language of different elements in the product to express something. Product designers must consider every detail: how people use and misuse objects, potential flaws in products, errors in

476-435: A later point in time or circumstance. Evaluation is inherently a theoretically informed approach (whether explicitly or not), and consequently any particular definition of evaluation would have been tailored to its context – the theory, needs, purpose, and methodology of the evaluation process itself. Having said this, evaluation has been defined as: The main purpose of a program evaluation can be to "determine

544-481: A mass perspective. Seven true evaluation approaches are included. Two approaches, decision-oriented and policy studies, are based on an objectivist epistemology from an elite perspective. Consumer-oriented studies are based on an objectivist epistemology from a mass perspective. Two approaches—accreditation/certification and connoisseur studies—are based on a subjectivist epistemology from an elite perspective. Finally, adversary and client-centered studies are based on

612-401: A new product paradigm to force the rest of the industry to catch up—fueling further innovation. Products designed to benefit people of all ages and abilities—without penalty to any group—accommodate our swelling aging population by extending independence and supporting the changing physical and sensory needs we all encounter as we grow older. Evaluate In common usage , evaluation is

680-676: A particular evaluation outcome. Finally, evaluators themselves may encounter " conflict of interest (COI) " issues, or experience interference or pressure to present findings that support a particular assessment. General professional codes of conduct , as determined by the employing organization, usually cover three broad aspects of behavioral standards, and include inter- collegial relations (such as respect for diversity and privacy ), operational issues (due competence , documentation accuracy and appropriate use of resources), and conflicts of interest ( nepotism , accepting gifts and other kinds of favoritism). However, specific guidelines particular to

748-464: A person's thoughts towards buying the product. Therefore, it is in the product designer's best interest to consider the audiences who are most likely to be the product's end consumers. Keeping in mind how consumers will perceive the product during the design process will direct towards the product’s success in the market. However, even within a specific audience, it is challenging to cater to each possible personality within that group. One solution to that

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816-399: A plastic like substance opposed to traditional printers that spread ink across a page. The product design process, as expressed by Koberg and Bagnell, typically involves three main aspects: Depending on the kind of product being designed, the latter two sections are most often revisited (e.g. depending on how often the design needs revision, to improve it or to better fit the criteria). This

884-421: A product that's already on the market, such as developing an existing invention for another purpose. Invention-push innovation happens when there is an advancement in intelligence. This can occur through research or it can occur when the product designer comes up with a new product design idea. Design expression comes from the combined effect of all elements in a product. Colour tone, shape and size should direct

952-411: A range of applications both for the term 'art' and the term 'design'. Applied arts can include industrial design , graphic design , fashion design , and the decorative arts which traditionally includes craft objects. In graphic arts (2D image making that ranges from photography to illustration), the distinction is often made between fine art and commercial art , based on the context within which

1020-471: A subjectivist epistemology from a mass perspective. The following table is used to summarize each approach in terms of four attributes —organizer, purpose, strengths, and weaknesses. The organizer represents the main considerations or cues practitioners use to organize a study. The purpose represents the desired outcome for a study at a very general level. Strengths and weaknesses represent other attributes that should be considered when deciding whether to use

1088-873: A thinking agent, and is sometimes used to refer to the inherent nature of something – its design. The verb to design expresses the process of developing a design. In some cases, the direct construction of an object without an explicit prior plan may also be considered to be a design (such as in arts and crafts). A design is expected to have a purpose within a certain context, usually having to satisfy certain goals and constraints and to take into account aesthetic , functional, economic, environmental, or socio-political considerations. Traditional examples of designs include architectural and engineering drawings, circuit diagrams , sewing patterns , and less tangible artefacts such as business process models. People who produce designs are called designers . The term 'designer' usually refers to someone who works professionally in one of

1156-403: A transparent, proportionate, and persuasive link between findings and recommendations. Thus evaluators are required to delimit their findings to evidence. A mechanism to ensure impartiality is external and internal review. Such review is required of significant (determined in terms of cost or sensitivity) evaluations. The review is based on quality of work and the degree to which a demonstrable link

1224-762: A way that would have taken greater human resources in the past. Product design is sometimes confused with (and certainly overlaps with) industrial design , and has recently become a broad term inclusive of service, software, and physical product design. Industrial design is concerned with bringing artistic form and usability, usually associated with craft design and ergonomics , together in order to mass-produce goods. Other aspects of product design and industrial design include engineering design , particularly when matters of functionality or utility (e.g. problem-solving) are at issue, though such boundaries are not always clear. There are various product design processes and many focus on different aspects. One example formulation/model of

1292-471: Is utilitarian , in which " the good " is determined by what maximizes a single, explicit interpretation of happiness for society as a whole. Another form of subjectivist ethics is intuitionist / pluralist , in which no single interpretation of "the good" is assumed and such interpretations need not be explicitly stated nor justified. These ethical positions have corresponding epistemologies — philosophies for obtaining knowledge . The objectivist epistemology

1360-405: Is a continuous loop, where feedback is the main component. Koberg and Bagnell offer more specifics on the process: In their model, "analysis" consists of two stages, "concept" is only one stage, and "synthesis" encompasses the other four. (These terms notably vary in usage in different design frameworks. Here, they are used in the way they're used by Koberg and Bagnell.) The Double Diamond Framework

1428-412: Is a widely used approach for product discovery, which emphasizes a structured method for problem-solving and solution development, encouraging teams to diverge (broad exploration) before converging (focused decision-making). The framework is divided into two primary stages: diverging and converging, each with its own steps and considerations. Diverging Stage: During the diverging stage, teams explore

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1496-656: Is also a part of general education, for example within the curriculum topic, Design and Technology . The development of design in general education in the 1970s created a need to identify fundamental aspects of 'designerly' ways of knowing, thinking, and acting, which resulted in establishing design as a distinct discipline of study. Substantial disagreement exists concerning how designers in many fields, whether amateur or professional, alone or in teams, produce designs. Design researchers Dorst and Dijkhuis acknowledged that "there are many ways of describing design processes," and compare and contrast two dominant but different views of

1564-786: Is also an evaluation group within the OECD-DAC, which endeavors to improve development evaluation standards. The independent evaluation units of the major multinational development banks (MDBs) have also created the Evaluation Cooperation Group to strengthen the use of evaluation for greater MDB effectiveness and accountability, share lessons from MDB evaluations, and promote evaluation harmonization and collaboration. The word "evaluation" has various connotations for different people, raising issues related to this process that include; what type of evaluation should be conducted; why there should be an evaluation process and how

1632-977: Is and might be—they call this pseudo-evaluation . The questions orientation includes approaches that might or might not provide answers specifically related to the value of an object—they call this quasi -evaluation. The values orientation includes approaches primarily intended to determine the value of an object—they call this true evaluation. When the above concepts are considered simultaneously, fifteen evaluation approaches can be identified in terms of epistemology, major perspective (from House), and orientation. Two pseudo-evaluation approaches, politically controlled and public relations studies, are represented. They are based on an objectivist epistemology from an elite perspective. Six quasi-evaluation approaches use an objectivist epistemology. Five of them— experimental research, management information systems , testing programs, objectives-based studies, and content analysis —take an elite perspective. Accountability takes

1700-594: Is associated with the utilitarian ethic; in general, it is used to acquire knowledge that can be externally verified (intersubjective agreement) through publicly exposed methods and data . The subjectivist epistemology is associated with the intuitionist/pluralist ethic and is used to acquire new knowledge based on existing personal knowledge, as well as experiences that are (explicit) or are not (tacit) available for public inspection. House then divides each epistemological approach into two main political perspectives. Firstly, approaches can take an elite perspective, focusing on

1768-423: Is attained through ensuring independence of judgment is upheld such that evaluation conclusions are not influenced or pressured by another party, and avoidance of conflict of interest, such that the evaluator does not have a stake in a particular conclusion. Conflict of interest is at issue particularly where funding of evaluations is provided by particular bodies with a stake in conclusions of the evaluation, and this

1836-490: Is based on an empiricist philosophy and broadly consistent with the agile approach and methodical development. Substantial empirical evidence supports the veracity of this perspective in describing the actions of real designers. Like the rational model, the action-centric model sees design as informed by research and knowledge. At least two views of design activity are consistent with the action-centric perspective. Both involve these three basic activities: The concept of

1904-407: Is either predicted or what was accomplished and how it was accomplished. So evaluation can be formative , that is taking place during the development of a concept or proposal, project or organization, with the intention of improving the value or effectiveness of the proposal, project, or organization . It can also be summative , drawing lessons from a completed action or project or an organization at

1972-466: Is informed by research and knowledge in a predictable and controlled manner. Typical stages consistent with the rational model include the following: Each stage has many associated best practices . The rational model has been widely criticized on two primary grounds: The action-centric perspective is a label given to a collection of interrelated concepts, which are antithetical to the rational model. It posits that: The action-centric perspective

2040-425: Is possible for a situation to be encountered, in which the process could not be considered advisable; for instance, in the event of a program being unpredictable, or unsound. This would include it lacking a consistent routine; or the concerned parties unable to reach an agreement regarding the purpose of the program. In addition, an influencer, or manager, refusing to incorporate relevant, important central issues within

2108-452: Is provided between findings and recommendations. Transparency requires that stakeholders are aware of the reason for the evaluation, the criteria by which evaluation occurs and the purposes to which the findings will be applied. Access to the evaluation document should be facilitated through findings being easily readable, with clear explanations of evaluation methodologies, approaches, sources of information, and costs incurred. Furthermore,

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2176-855: Is released or withheld to meet the special interests of the holder, whereas public relations information creates a positive image of an object regardless of the actual situation. Despite the application of both studies in real scenarios, neither of these approaches is acceptable evaluation practice. As a group, these five approaches represent a highly respected collection of disciplined inquiry approaches. They are considered quasi-evaluation approaches because particular studies legitimately can focus only on questions of knowledge without addressing any questions of value. Such studies are, by definition, not evaluations. These approaches can produce characterizations without producing appraisals, although specific studies can produce both. Each of these approaches serves its intended purpose well. They are discussed roughly in order of

2244-448: Is required to be maintained against any pressures brought to bear on evaluators, for example, by project funders wishing to modify evaluations such that the project appears more effective than findings can verify. Impartiality pertains to findings being a fair and thorough assessment of strengths and weaknesses of a project or program. This requires taking due input from all stakeholders involved and findings presented without bias and with

2312-517: Is required, brainstorming possible ideas, creating mock prototypes and then generating the product. However, that is not the end. Product designers would still need to execute the idea, making it into an actual product and evaluating its success (seeing if any improvements are necessary). The product design process has experienced huge leaps in evolution over the last few years with the rise and adoption of 3D printing . New consumer-friendly 3D printers can produce dimensional objects and print upwards with

2380-420: Is seen as potentially compromising the independence of the evaluator. Whilst it is acknowledged that evaluators may be familiar with agencies or projects that they are required to evaluate, independence requires that they not have been involved in the planning or implementation of the project. A declaration of interest should be made where any benefits or association with project are stated. Independence of judgment

2448-405: Is that "when evaluation findings are challenged or utilization has failed, it was because stakeholders and clients found the inferences weak or the warrants unconvincing" (Fournier and Smith, 1993). Some reasons for this situation may be the failure of the evaluator to establish a set of shared aims with the evaluand, or creating overly ambitious aims, as well as failing to compromise and incorporate

2516-488: Is to create a product that, in its designed appearance and function, expresses a personality or tells a story. Products that carry such attributes are more likely to give off a stronger expression that will attract more consumers. On that note it is important to keep in mind that design expression does not only concern the appearance of a product, but also its function. For example, as humans our appearance as well as our actions are subject to people's judgment when they are making

2584-401: Is to enable reflection and assist in the identification of future change. Evaluation is often used to characterize and appraise subjects of interest in a wide range of human enterprises, including the start of a period of months Evaluation is the structured interpretation and giving of meaning to predicted or actual impacts of proposals or results. It looks at original objectives, and at what

2652-400: The design cycle is understood as a circular time structure, which may start with the thinking of an idea, then expressing it by the use of visual or verbal means of communication (design tools), the sharing and perceiving of the expressed idea, and finally starting a new cycle with the critical rethinking of the perceived idea. Anderson points out that this concept emphasizes the importance of

2720-416: The fashion industry , and buildings in architectural design . Most product designs fall under one of two categories: demand-pull innovation or invention-push innovation. Demand-pull happens when there is an opportunity in the market to be explored by the design of a product. This product design attempts to solve a design problem. The design solution may be the development of a new product or developing

2788-527: The Joint Committee. They provide guidelines about basing value judgments on systematic inquiry, evaluator competence and integrity, respect for people, and regard for the general and public welfare. The American Evaluation Association has created a set of Guiding Principles for evaluators. The order of these principles does not imply priority among them; priority will vary by situation and evaluator role. The principles run as follows: Independence

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2856-551: The adoption of a product or process. Not all evaluations serve the same purpose some evaluations serve a monitoring function rather than focusing solely on measurable program outcomes or evaluation findings and a full list of types of evaluations would be difficult to compile. This is because evaluation is not part of a unified theoretical framework, drawing on a number of disciplines, which include management and organizational theory , policy analysis , education , sociology , social anthropology , and social change . However,

2924-450: The approach for a particular study. The following narrative highlights differences between approaches grouped together. Politically controlled and public relations studies are based on an objectivist epistemology from an elite perspective. Although both of these approaches seek to misrepresent value interpretations about an object, they function differently from each other. Information obtained through politically controlled studies

2992-405: The cultural differences of individuals and programs within the evaluation aims and process. None of these problems are due to a lack of a definition of evaluation but are rather due to evaluators attempting to impose predisposed notions and definitions of evaluations on clients. The central reason for the poor utilization of evaluations is arguably due to the lack of tailoring of evaluations to suit

3060-438: The design process, and the ideal ways people wish they could interact with those objects. Many new designs will fail and many won't even make it to market. Some designs eventually become obsolete. The design process itself can be quite frustrating usually taking 5 or 6 tries to get the product design right. A product that fails in the marketplace the first time may be re-introduced to the market 2 more times. If it continues to fail,

3128-671: The design process: as a rational problem-solving process and as a process of reflection-in-action. They suggested that these two paradigms "represent two fundamentally different ways of looking at the world – positivism and constructionism ." The paradigms may reflect differing views of how designing should be done and how it actually is done, and both have a variety of names. The problem-solving view has been called "the rational model," "technical rationality" and "the reason-centric perspective." The alternative view has been called "reflection-in-action," "coevolution" and "the action-centric perspective." The rational model

3196-479: The design researcher Nigel Cross , "Everyone can – and does – design," and "Design ability is something that everyone has, to some extent, because it is embedded in our brains as a natural cognitive function." The study of design history is complicated by varying interpretations of what constitutes 'designing'. Many design historians, such as John Heskett , look to the Industrial Revolution and

3264-655: The development of mass production. Others subscribe to conceptions of design that include pre-industrial objects and artefacts, beginning their narratives of design in prehistoric times. Originally situated within art history , the historical development of the discipline of design history coalesced in the 1970s, as interested academics worked to recognize design as a separate and legitimate target for historical research. Early influential design historians include German-British art historian Nikolaus Pevsner and Swiss historian and architecture critic Sigfried Giedion . In Western Europe, institutions for design education date back to

3332-560: The evaluation There exist several conceptually distinct ways of thinking about, designing, and conducting evaluation efforts. Many of the evaluation approaches in use today make truly unique contributions to solving important problems, while others refine existing approaches in some way. Two classifications of evaluation approaches by House and Stufflebeam and Webster can be combined into a manageable number of approaches in terms of their unique and important underlying principles. House considers all major evaluation approaches to be based on

3400-503: The evaluation is integrated into a program, for the purpose of gaining greater knowledge and awareness? There are also various factors inherent in the evaluation process, for example; to critically examine influences within a program that involve the gathering and analyzing of relative information about a program. Michael Quinn Patton motivated the concept that the evaluation procedure should be directed towards: Founded on another perspective of evaluation by Thomson and Hoffman in 2003, it

3468-456: The evaluator's role that can be utilized in the management of unique ethical challenges are required. The Joint Committee on Standards for Educational Evaluation has developed standards for program, personnel, and student evaluation. The Joint Committee standards are broken into four sections: Utility, Feasibility, Propriety, and Accuracy. Various European institutions have also prepared their own standards, more or less related to those produced by

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3536-437: The extent to which they approach the objectivist ideal. Evaluation is methodologically diverse. Methods may be qualitative or quantitative , and include case studies , survey research , statistical analysis , model building, and many more such as: Design A design is the concept of or proposal for an object, process , or system . The word design refers to something that is or has been intentionally created by

3604-411: The interests of managers and professionals; or they also can take a mass perspective, focusing on consumers and participatory approaches. Stufflebeam and Webster place approaches into one of three groups, according to their orientation toward the role of values and ethical consideration. The political orientation promotes a positive or negative view of an object regardless of what its value actually

3672-561: The international organizations such as the I.M.F. and the World Bank have independent evaluation functions. The various funds, programmes, and agencies of the United Nations has a mix of independent, semi-independent and self-evaluation functions, which have organized themselves as a system-wide UN Evaluation Group (UNEG), that works together to strengthen the function, and to establish UN norms and standards for evaluation. There

3740-427: The means of expression, which at the same time are means of perception of any design ideas. Philosophy of design is the study of definitions, assumptions, foundations, and implications of design. There are also many informal 'philosophies' for guiding design such as personal values or preferred approaches. Some of these values and approaches include: The boundaries between art and design are blurry, largely due to

3808-443: The needs of the client, due to a predefined idea (or definition) of what an evaluation is rather than what the client needs are (House, 1980). The development of a standard methodology for evaluation will require arriving at applicable ways of asking and stating the results of questions about ethics such as agent-principal, privacy, stakeholder definition, limited liability; and could-the-money-be-spent-more-wisely issues. Depending on

3876-600: The nineteenth century. The Norwegian National Academy of Craft and Art Industry was founded in 1818, followed by the United Kingdom's Government School of Design (1837), and Konstfack in Sweden (1844). The Rhode Island School of Design was founded in the United States in 1877. The German art and design school Bauhaus , founded in 1919, greatly influenced modern design education. Design education covers

3944-490: The problem space broadly without predefined solutions. This phase involves engaging with core personas, conducting open-ended conversations, and gathering unfiltered input from customer-facing teams. The goal is to identify and document various problem areas, allowing themes and key issues to emerge naturally. Converging Stage: As insights emerge, teams transition to the converging stage, where they narrow down problem areas and prioritize solutions. This phase involves defining

4012-525: The problem, understanding major pain points, and advocating for solutions within the organization. Effective convergence requires clear articulation of the problem's significance and consideration of business strategies and feasibility. Iterative Process: The Double Diamond Framework is iterative, allowing teams to revisit stages as needed based on feedback and outcomes. Moving back to earlier stages may be necessary if solutions fail to address underlying issues or elicit negative user responses. Success lies in

4080-418: The process is described by Don Koberg and Jim Bagnel in "The Seven Universal Stages of Creative Problem-Solving." The process is usually completed by a group of people with different skills and training—e.g. industrial designers , field experts (prospective users), engineers (for engineering design aspects), depending upon the nature and type of the product involved. The process often involves figuring out what

4148-448: The product is then considered to be dead because the market believes it to be a failure. Most new products fail, even if there's a great idea behind them. All types of product design are clearly linked to the economic health of manufacturing sectors. Innovation provides much of the competitive impetus for the development of new products, with new technology often requiring a new design interpretation. It only takes one manufacturer to create

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4216-549: The quality of a program by formulating a judgment" Marthe Hurteau, Sylvain Houle, Stéphanie Mongiat (2009). An alternative view is that "projects, evaluators, and other stakeholders (including funders) will all have potentially different ideas about how best to evaluate a project since each may have a different definition of 'merit'. The core of the problem is thus about defining what is of value." From this perspective, evaluation "is

4284-413: The strict adherence to a set of methodological assumptions may make the field of evaluation more acceptable to a mainstream audience but this adherence will work towards preventing evaluators from developing new strategies for dealing with the myriad problems that programs face. It is claimed that only a minority of evaluation reports are used by the evaluand (client) (Data, 2006). One justification of this

4352-453: The teaching of theory, knowledge and values in the design of products, services, and environments, with a focus on the development of both particular and general skills for designing. Traditionally, its primary orientation has been to prepare students for professional design practice, based on project work and studio, or atelier , teaching methods. There are also broader forms of higher education in design studies and design thinking . Design

4420-508: The team's ability to adapt and refine their approach over time. In design , Creative Visualization refers to the process by which computer generated imagery , digital animation , three-dimensional models , and two-dimensional representations, such as architectural blueprints , engineering drawings , and sewing patterns are created and used in order to visualize a potential product prior to production. Such products include prototypes for vehicles in automotive engineering , apparel in

4488-430: The topic of interest, there are professional groups that review the quality and rigor of evaluation processes. Evaluating programs and projects, regarding their value and impact within the context they are implemented, can be ethically challenging. Evaluators may encounter complex, culturally specific systems resistant to external evaluation. Furthermore, the project organization or other stakeholders may be invested in

4556-529: The various design areas. Within the professions, the word 'designer' is generally qualified by the area of practice (for example: a fashion designer , a product designer , a web designer , or an interior designer ), but it can also designate other practitioners such as architects and engineers (see below: Types of designing). A designer's sequence of activities to produce a design is called a design process, with some employing designated processes such as design thinking and design methods . The process of creating

4624-400: Was independently developed by Herbert A. Simon, an American scientist, and two German engineering design theorists, Gerhard Pahl and Wolfgang Beitz. It posits that: The rational model is based on a rationalist philosophy and underlies the waterfall model , systems development life cycle , and much of the engineering design literature. According to the rationalist philosophy, design

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