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68-444: Pseudosuchia (from Greek : ψεύδος (pseudos) , "false" and Greek : σούχος (souchos) , "crocodile") is one of two major divisions of Archosauria , including living crocodilians and all archosaurs more closely related to crocodilians than to birds. Pseudosuchians are also informally known as "crocodilian-line archosaurs", in contrast to the "bird-line archosaurs" or Avemetatarsalia . Despite Pseudosuchia meaning "false crocodiles",

136-577: A basis for coinages: anthropology , photography , telephony , isomer , biomechanics , cinematography , etc. Together with Latin words , they form the foundation of international scientific and technical vocabulary ; for example, all words ending in -logy ('discourse'). There are many English words of Greek origin . Greek is an independent branch of the Indo-European language family. The ancient language most closely related to it may be ancient Macedonian , which, by most accounts,

204-501: A branch-based clade, Pseudosuchia is the sister taxon of another branch-based clade, the Avemetatarsalia . Avemetatarsalians are bird-line archosaurs, including pterosaurs and dinosaurs (the latter including birds). A different definition was suggested by Benton and Clark, 1988: the node-based taxon including the last common ancestor of Rauisuchidae and aetosaurs and all of its descendants. Benton and Clark also named

272-586: A diverse array of lifestyles during the Jurassic and Cretaceous periods, although only a single subset of crocodylomorphs, the Crocodilia, survive to the present day. Living crocodilians include crocodiles , alligators , caimans , and gavialids . The name Pseudosuchia was originally given to a group of superficially crocodile-like prehistoric reptiles from the Triassic period, but fell out of use in

340-558: A fairly stable set of consonantal contrasts . The main phonological changes occurred during the Hellenistic and Roman period (see Koine Greek phonology for details): In all its stages, the morphology of Greek shows an extensive set of productive derivational affixes , a limited but productive system of compounding and a rich inflectional system. Although its morphological categories have been fairly stable over time, morphological changes are present throughout, particularly in

408-560: A faster, more convenient cursive writing style with the use of ink and quill . The Greek alphabet consists of 24 letters, each with an uppercase ( majuscule ) and lowercase ( minuscule ) form. The letter sigma has an additional lowercase form (ς) used in the final position of a word: In addition to the letters, the Greek alphabet features a number of diacritical signs : three different accent marks ( acute , grave , and circumflex ), originally denoting different shapes of pitch accent on

476-540: A foreign language. It is also often stated that the historical changes have been relatively slight compared with some other languages. According to one estimation, " Homeric Greek is probably closer to Demotic than 12-century Middle English is to modern spoken English ". Greek is spoken today by at least 13 million people, principally in Greece and Cyprus along with a sizable Greek-speaking minority in Albania near

544-513: A group called Crocodylotarsi, which includes most taxa now considered pseudosuchians. In 1990, Paul Sereno erected the clade Crurotarsi to supplant Pseudosuchia. However, Sereno defined Crurotarsi as a node-based clade, relying on the inclusion of groups such as Phytosauria , Aetosauria, and Crocodylomorpha . It is not equivalent to Pseudosuchia, which by definition must include all crocodilian-line archosaurs. For many years, Pseudosuchia and Crurotarsi have been considered partial synonyms because

612-406: A similar definition, Crocodylotarsi, was named in 1988, possibly as a replacement for Pseudosuchia. The name Pseudosuchia, meaning "false crocodiles", has been used for over a century, and traditionally included only non-crocodilians, but when defined as a clade, Pseudosuchia came to include the group Eusuchia ("true crocodiles") as well. Crocodylotarsi may have been named to remove confusion, but as

680-410: A staggering diversity of reptiles with many different lifestyles. Early pseudosuchians were successful in the Triassic period. They included giant, quadrupedal apex predators such as Saurosuchus , Prestosuchus , and Fasolasuchus . Ornithosuchids were large scavengers, while erpetosuchids and gracilisuchids were small, light-footed predators. A few groups acquired herbivorous diets, such as

748-511: A stem-based clade, it is synonymous with Pseudosuchia. Because Pseudosuchia was named first, it has precedence. A third group, Crurotarsi , traditionally included the same archosaurs as Pseudosuchia, but as a node-based clade it is not synonymous. The scope of Crurotarsi has recently been changed by the phylogenetic placement of phytosaurs. In 2011, Sterling J. Nesbitt found phytosaurs to be the sister taxon of Archosauria, and therefore not crocodile-line archosaurs. Because phytosaurs are included in

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816-804: Is also found in Bulgaria near the Greek-Bulgarian border. Greek is also spoken worldwide by the sizable Greek diaspora which has notable communities in the United States , Australia , Canada , South Africa , Chile , Brazil , Argentina , Russia , Ukraine , the United Kingdom , and throughout the European Union , especially in Germany . Historically, significant Greek-speaking communities and regions were found throughout

884-773: Is an Indo-European language, constituting an independent Hellenic branch within the Indo-European language family. It is native to Greece , Cyprus , Italy (in Calabria and Salento ), southern Albania , and other regions of the Balkans , Caucasus , the Black Sea coast, Asia Minor , and the Eastern Mediterranean . It has the longest documented history of any Indo-European language, spanning at least 3,400 years of written records. Its writing system

952-479: Is an Indo-European language, but also includes a number of borrowings from the languages of the populations that inhabited Greece before the arrival of Proto-Greeks, some documented in Mycenaean texts ; they include a large number of Greek toponyms . The form and meaning of many words have changed. Loanwords (words of foreign origin) have entered the language, mainly from Latin, Venetian , and Turkish . During

1020-1178: Is from a slightly older study, Brusatte, Benton, Desojo and Langer (2010). Bold terminal taxa are collapsed. Several results of the study, such as the retention of a monophyletic Rauisuchia , the retention of phytosaurs within Pseudosuchia, and a close relation between aetosaurs and crocodylomorphs, replicate the results of older studies. However, the findings of Nesbitt (2011) have been more widely supported by pseudosuchian-focused analyses published since 2011. † Erythrosuchus [REDACTED] † Euparkeria [REDACTED] † Proterochampsidae [REDACTED] Avemetatarsalia [REDACTED] † Phytosauria [REDACTED] † Aetosauria [REDACTED] † Gracilisuchus [REDACTED] † Erpetosuchus [REDACTED] Crocodylomorpha [REDACTED] † Revueltosaurus [REDACTED] † Ornithosuchidae [REDACTED] Greek language Greek ( Modern Greek : Ελληνικά , romanized :  Elliniká , [eliniˈka] ; Ancient Greek : Ἑλληνική , romanized :  Hellēnikḗ )

1088-589: Is one of the two primary "daughter" clades of the Archosauria . The skull is often massively built, especially in contrast to ornithodires ; the snout is narrow and tends to be elongated, the neck is short and strong, and the limb posture ranges from a typical reptilian sprawl to an erect stance like dinosaurs ' or mammals ', although achieving it a different way. The body is often protected by two or more rows of armored plates. Many crurotarsans reached lengths of three meters or more. Pseudosuchians appeared during

1156-519: Is protected and promoted officially as a regional and minority language in Armenia, Hungary , Romania, and Ukraine. It is recognized as a minority language and protected in Turkey by the 1923 Treaty of Lausanne . The phonology , morphology , syntax , and vocabulary of the language show both conservative and innovative tendencies across the entire attestation of the language from the ancient to

1224-862: Is sometimes called aljamiado , as when Romance languages are written in the Arabic alphabet. Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in Greek: Transcription of the example text into Latin alphabet : Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in English: Proto-Greek Mycenaean Ancient Koine Medieval Modern Alfred Sherwood Romer Alfred Romer

1292-526: Is spoken by at least 13.5 million people today in Greece, Cyprus, Italy, Albania, Turkey , and the many other countries of the Greek diaspora . Greek roots have been widely used for centuries and continue to be widely used to coin new words in other languages; Greek and Latin are the predominant sources of international scientific vocabulary . Greek has been spoken in the Balkan peninsula since around

1360-763: Is still used internationally for the writing of Ancient Greek . In Greek, the question mark is written as the English semicolon, while the functions of the colon and semicolon are performed by a raised point (•), known as the ano teleia ( άνω τελεία ). In Greek the comma also functions as a silent letter in a handful of Greek words, principally distinguishing ό,τι ( ó,ti , 'whatever') from ότι ( óti , 'that'). Ancient Greek texts often used scriptio continua ('continuous writing'), which means that ancient authors and scribes would write word after word with no spaces or punctuation between words to differentiate or mark boundaries. Boustrophedon , or bi-directional text,

1428-650: Is the Greek alphabet , which has been used for approximately 2,800 years; previously, Greek was recorded in writing systems such as Linear B and the Cypriot syllabary . The alphabet arose from the Phoenician script and was in turn the basis of the Latin , Cyrillic , Coptic , Gothic , and many other writing systems. The Greek language holds a very important place in the history of the Western world. Beginning with

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1496-836: The American Philosophical Society . In 1954 Romer was awarded the Mary Clark Thompson Medal from the National Academy of Sciences , of which he was a member. He was awarded the academy's Daniel Giraud Elliot Medal in 1956. In 1961, Romer received the Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement . Romer was a keen practical student of vertebrate evolution. Comparing facts from paleontology , comparative anatomy , and embryology , he taught

1564-495: The Eastern Mediterranean , in what are today Southern Italy , Turkey , Cyprus , Syria , Lebanon , Israel , Palestine , Egypt , and Libya ; in the area of the Black Sea , in what are today Turkey, Bulgaria , Romania , Ukraine , Russia , Georgia , Armenia , and Azerbaijan ; and, to a lesser extent, in the Western Mediterranean in and around colonies such as Massalia , Monoikos , and Mainake . It

1632-516: The Indo-Iranian languages (see Graeco-Aryan ), but little definitive evidence has been found. In addition, Albanian has also been considered somewhat related to Greek and Armenian, and it has been proposed that they all form a higher-order subgroup along with other extinct languages of the ancient Balkans; this higher-order subgroup is usually termed Palaeo-Balkan , and Greek has a central position in it. Linear B , attested as early as

1700-492: The nominal and verbal systems. The major change in the nominal morphology since the classical stage was the disuse of the dative case (its functions being largely taken over by the genitive ). The verbal system has lost the infinitive , the synthetically -formed future, and perfect tenses and the optative mood . Many have been replaced by periphrastic ( analytical ) forms. Pronouns show distinctions in person (1st, 2nd, and 3rd), number (singular, dual , and plural in

1768-470: The 3rd millennium BC, or possibly earlier. The earliest written evidence is a Linear B clay tablet found in Messenia that dates to between 1450 and 1350 BC, making Greek the world's oldest recorded living language . Among the Indo-European languages, its date of earliest written attestation is matched only by the now-extinct Anatolian languages . The Greek language is conventionally divided into

1836-486: The Greek alphabet since approximately the 9th century BC. It was created by modifying the Phoenician alphabet , with the innovation of adopting certain letters to represent the vowels. The variant of the alphabet in use today is essentially the late Ionic variant, introduced for writing classical Attic in 403 BC. In classical Greek, as in classical Latin, only upper-case letters existed. The lower-case Greek letters were developed much later by medieval scribes to permit

1904-425: The Greek language are often emphasized. Although Greek has undergone morphological and phonological changes comparable to those seen in other languages, never since classical antiquity has its cultural, literary, and orthographic tradition been interrupted to the extent that one can speak of a new language emerging. Greek speakers today still tend to regard literary works of ancient Greek as part of their own rather than

1972-495: The Greek language was the Cypriot syllabary (also a descendant of Linear A via the intermediate Cypro-Minoan syllabary ), which is closely related to Linear B but uses somewhat different syllabic conventions to represent phoneme sequences. The Cypriot syllabary is attested in Cyprus from the 11th century BC until its gradual abandonment in the late Classical period, in favor of the standard Greek alphabet. Greek has been written in

2040-629: The Greek verb have likewise remained largely the same over the course of the language's history but with significant changes in the number of distinctions within each category and their morphological expression. Greek verbs have synthetic inflectional forms for: Many aspects of the syntax of Greek have remained constant: verbs agree with their subject only, the use of the surviving cases is largely intact (nominative for subjects and predicates, accusative for objects of most verbs and many prepositions, genitive for possessors), articles precede nouns, adpositions are largely prepositional, relative clauses follow

2108-685: The Greek-Albanian border. A significant percentage of Albania's population has knowledge of the Greek language due in part to the Albanian wave of immigration to Greece in the 1980s and '90s and the Greek community in the country. Prior to the Greco-Turkish War and the resulting population exchange in 1923 a very large population of Greek-speakers also existed in Turkey , though very few remain today. A small Greek-speaking community

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2176-404: The acute during the late 20th century, and it has only been retained in typography . After the writing reform of 1982, most diacritics are no longer used. Since then, Greek has been written mostly in the simplified monotonic orthography (or monotonic system), which employs only the acute accent and the diaeresis. The traditional system, now called the polytonic orthography (or polytonic system),

2244-402: The ancient language; singular and plural alone in later stages), and gender (masculine, feminine, and neuter), and decline for case (from six cases in the earliest forms attested to four in the modern language). Nouns, articles, and adjectives show all the distinctions except for a person. Both attributive and predicative adjectives agree with the noun. The inflectional categories of

2312-447: The basic structural and functional changes that happened during the evolution of fishes to ancestral terrestrial vertebrates and from these to all other tetrapods . He always emphasized the evolutionary significance of the relationship between form and function of animals and their environment. Through his textbook Vertebrate Paleontology , Romer laid the foundation for the traditional classification of vertebrates. He drew together

2380-575: The birds, while the crocodilians continued with little change. Today, the crocodiles , alligators , and gharials are the surviving representatives of this lineage. The Mesozoic range of cranial disparity is higher than the Triassic one, suggesting crocodylomorphs attained a high degree of diversification compared to Triassic pseudosuchians. Pseudosuchia was defined as a stem-based clade in 1985. It includes crocodiles and all archosaurs more closely related to crocodiles than to birds. A second clade with

2448-1261: The definition of Crurotarsi, crurotarsans are not solely crocodile-line archosaurs, but also bird-line archosaurs and phytosaurs. Under this phylogeny, Crurotarsi includes phytosaurs, crocodiles, pterosaurs, and dinosaurs, while Pseudosuchia still contains only crocodile-line archosaurs. Below is a cladogram modified from Nesbitt (2011) showing the new changes (bold terminal taxa are collapsed). † Proterosuchidae [REDACTED] † Erythrosuchus [REDACTED] † Vancleavea [REDACTED] † Proterochampsia [REDACTED] † Euparkeria [REDACTED] † Phytosauria [REDACTED] Avemetatarsalia (bird-lineage of archosaurs) [REDACTED] † Ornithosuchidae [REDACTED] † Gracilisuchus [REDACTED] † Turfanosuchus [REDACTED] † Revueltosaurus [REDACTED] † Aetosauria [REDACTED] † Ticinosuchus [REDACTED] † Poposauroidea [REDACTED] † Prestosuchus [REDACTED] † Saurosuchus [REDACTED] † Batrachotomus [REDACTED] † Fasolasuchus † Rauisuchidae [REDACTED] Crocodylomorpha [REDACTED] The following cladogram

2516-515: The dominant terrestrial carnivores and herbivores. As the Mesozoic progressed, the Protosuchia gave rise to more typically crocodile-like forms. While dinosaurs were the dominant animals on land, the crocodiles flourished in rivers, swamps, and the oceans, with far greater diversity than they have today. With the end-Cretaceous extinction , the dinosaurs became extinct, with the exception of

2584-404: The early 19th century that was used for literary and official purposes in the newly formed Greek state. In 1976, Dimotiki was declared the official language of Greece, after having incorporated features of Katharevousa and thus giving birth to Standard Modern Greek , used today for all official purposes and in education . The historical unity and continuing identity between the various stages of

2652-618: The epics of Homer , ancient Greek literature includes many works of lasting importance in the European canon . Greek is also the language in which many of the foundational texts in science and philosophy were originally composed. The New Testament of the Christian Bible was also originally written in Greek. Together with the Latin texts and traditions of the Roman world , the Greek texts and Greek societies of antiquity constitute

2720-423: The extinction of all the pseudosuchians with the exception of Sphenosuchia and Crocodyliformes (both Crocodylomorpha ), the latter being the ancestors of modern-day crocodiles. A study published in 2010 postulates that there is significant evidence that volcanic eruptions changed the climate, causing a mass extinction that wiped out the dinosaurs' main competitors. This allowed the dinosaurs to succeed them as

2788-750: The first to establish the name Pseudosuchia in a phylogenetic context, using it as a branch-based taxon for all archosaurs more closely related to crocodilians than to birds. This made the name Pseudosuchia somewhat ironic because true crocodiles (i.e. members of Crocodylia) were now included in the group. Phylogenetic definitions of Pseudosuchia include "Crocodiles and all archosaurs closer to crocodiles than to birds" (Gauthier and Padian), "Extant crocodiles and all extinct archosaurs that are closer to crocodiles than they are to birds" (Gauthier, 1986), and more recently "the most inclusive clade within Archosauria that includes Crocodylia but not Aves" (Senter, 2005). As

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2856-452: The following periods: In the modern era, the Greek language entered a state of diglossia : the coexistence of vernacular and archaizing written forms of the language. What came to be known as the Greek language question was a polarization between two competing varieties of Modern Greek: Dimotiki , the vernacular form of Modern Greek proper, and Katharevousa , meaning 'purified', a compromise between Dimotiki and Ancient Greek developed in

2924-489: The heavily armored aetosaurs , and several were bipedal, such as Poposaurus and Postosuchus . The bizarre, ornithomimid -like shuvosaurids were both bipedal and herbivorous, with toothless beaks. Many of these Triassic pseudosuchian groups went extinct at or before the Triassic–Jurassic extinction event . However, one group, the crocodylomorphs , survived the major extinction. Crocodylomorphs themselves evolved

2992-439: The infinitive entirely (employing a raft of new periphrastic constructions instead) and uses participles more restrictively. The loss of the dative led to a rise of prepositional indirect objects (and the use of the genitive to directly mark these as well). Ancient Greek tended to be verb-final, but neutral word order in the modern language is VSO or SVO. Modern Greek inherits most of its vocabulary from Ancient Greek, which in turn

3060-540: The late Olenekian (early Triassic ); by the Ladinian (late Middle Triassic) they dominated the terrestrial carnivore niches. Their heyday was the Late Triassic, during which time their ranks included erect-limbed rauisuchians , herbivorous armored aetosaurs , the large predatory poposaurs , the small agile sphenosuchian crocodilians, and a few other assorted groups. The end-Triassic extinction caused

3128-467: The late 15th century BC, was the first script used to write Greek. It is basically a syllabary , which was finally deciphered by Michael Ventris and John Chadwick in the 1950s (its precursor, Linear A , has not been deciphered and most likely encodes a non-Greek language). The language of the Linear B texts, Mycenaean Greek , is the earliest known form of Greek. Another similar system used to write

3196-399: The late 20th century, especially after the name Crurotarsi was established in 1990 to label the clade (evolutionary grouping) of archosaurs encompassing most reptiles previously identified as pseudosuchians. By this time, Pseudosuchia had also been defined as a clade , but it was not widely embraced until 2011. In 2011 paleontologist Sterling Nesbitt proposed that Crurotarsi, as it

3264-410: The latter clade encompasses all crocodilian-line archosaurs in most phylogenetic analyses. Sterling Nesbitt 's 2011 analysis places one crurotarsan group, Phytosauria, outside Pseudosuchia. Since the definition of Crurotarsi relies on phytosaurs, their placement outside Pseudosuchia (and thus Archosauria) means that the clade Crurotarsi includes both pseudosuchians and avemetatarsalians. Pseudosuchia

3332-640: The membership of Greece and Cyprus in the European Union, Greek is one of the organization's 24 official languages . Greek is recognized as a minority language in Albania, and used co-officially in some of its municipalities, in the districts of Gjirokastër and Sarandë . It is also an official minority language in the regions of Apulia and Calabria in Italy. In the framework of the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages , Greek

3400-441: The modern period. The division into conventional periods is, as with all such periodizations, relatively arbitrary, especially because, in all periods, Ancient Greek has enjoyed high prestige, and the literate borrowed heavily from it. Across its history, the syllabic structure of Greek has varied little: Greek shows a mixed syllable structure, permitting complex syllabic onsets but very restricted codas. It has only oral vowels and

3468-518: The name "false crocodiles". In mid-20th century textbooks, like Alfred Sherwood Romer 's Vertebrate Paleontology and Edwin H. Colbert 's Evolution of the Vertebrates , Pseudosuchia constitutes one of the suborders of the now-abandoned order Thecodontia . Zittel's aetosaurs were placed in their own suborder, Aetosauria. Colbert considered small lightly built archosaurs, such as Ornithosuchus and Hesperosuchus — both of which were at

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3536-470: The name is a misnomer as true crocodilians are now defined as a subset of the group. The clade Pseudosuchia is potentially equivalent to Crurotarsi even though the latter has a different, node-based definition: "all taxa the least inclusive clade containing Rutiodon carolinensis (Emmons, 1856), and Crocodylus niloticus (Laurenti, 1768)." However, a major 2011 study of Triassic archosaur relations proposed that Rutiodon 's group, Phytosauria ,

3604-399: The noun they modify and relative pronouns are clause-initial. However, the morphological changes also have their counterparts in the syntax, and there are also significant differences between the syntax of the ancient and that of the modern form of the language . Ancient Greek made great use of participial constructions and of constructions involving the infinitive, and the modern variety lacks

3672-536: The objects of study of the discipline of Classics . During antiquity , Greek was by far the most widely spoken lingua franca in the Mediterranean world . It eventually became the official language of the Byzantine Empire and developed into Medieval Greek . In its modern form , Greek is the official language of Greece and Cyprus and one of the 24 official languages of the European Union . It

3740-706: The older periods of Greek, loanwords into Greek acquired Greek inflections, thus leaving only a foreign root word. Modern borrowings (from the 20th century on), especially from French and English, are typically not inflected; other modern borrowings are derived from Albanian , South Slavic ( Macedonian / Bulgarian ) and Eastern Romance languages ( Aromanian and Megleno-Romanian ). Greek words have been widely borrowed into other languages, including English. Example words include: mathematics , physics , astronomy , democracy , philosophy , athletics , theatre, rhetoric , baptism , evangelist , etc. Moreover, Greek words and word elements continue to be productive as

3808-437: The stressed vowel; the so-called breathing marks ( rough and smooth breathing ), originally used to signal presence or absence of word-initial /h/; and the diaeresis , used to mark the full syllabic value of a vowel that would otherwise be read as part of a diphthong. These marks were introduced during the course of the Hellenistic period. Actual usage of the grave in handwriting saw a rapid decline in favor of uniform usage of

3876-444: The then widely scattered taxonomy of the different vertebrate groups and combined them into a single scheme, emphasizing orderliness and overview. Based on his research into early amphibians, he reorganised the labyrinthodontians . Romer's classification has been followed by many subsequent authors, notably Robert L. Carroll , and is still in use. In honor of Alfred Romer, several taxonomic patronyms were given in animals: Romer

3944-523: The time reconstructed as theropod dinosaur-like bipeds — to be typical pseudosuchians. These small forms were assumed to be the ancestors of all later archosaurs. The name Pseudosuchia became a wastebasket taxon into which all thecodonts that did not fit in the other three suborders could be placed. Even Sharovipteryx and Longisquama , two enigmatic Triassic reptiles that bear little resemblance to archosaurs, have been regarded as pseudosuchians. Gauthier and Padian (1985) and Gauthier (1986) became

4012-574: Was a distinct dialect of Greek itself. Aside from the Macedonian question, current consensus regards Phrygian as the closest relative of Greek, since they share a number of phonological, morphological and lexical isoglosses , with some being exclusive between them. Scholars have proposed a Graeco-Phrygian subgroup out of which Greek and Phrygian originated. Among living languages, some Indo-Europeanists suggest that Greek may be most closely related to Armenian (see Graeco-Armenian ) or

4080-568: Was also used as the official language of government and religion in the Christian Nubian kingdoms , for most of their history. Greek, in its modern form, is the official language of Greece, where it is spoken by almost the entire population. It is also the official language of Cyprus (nominally alongside Turkish ) and the British Overseas Territory of Akrotiri and Dhekelia (alongside English ). Because of

4148-557: Was also used in Ancient Greek. Greek has occasionally been written in the Latin script , especially in areas under Venetian rule or by Greek Catholics . The term Frankolevantinika / Φραγκολεβαντίνικα applies when the Latin script is used to write Greek in the cultural ambit of Catholicism (because Frankos / Φράγκος is an older Greek term for West-European dating to when most of (Roman Catholic Christian) West Europe

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4216-463: Was an active researcher and teacher. His collecting program added important Paleozoic specimens to Chicago's Walker Museum of Paleontology. In 1934 he was appointed professor of biology at Harvard University . In 1946, he became director of the Harvard Museum of Comparative Zoology (MCZ). Romer was elected to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1937. In 1951, he was elected to

4284-571: Was born in White Plains , New York, the son of Harry Houston Romer and his wife, Evalyn Sherwood. He was educated at White Plains High School. He studied at Amherst College for his Bachelor of Science Honours degree in biology, then at Columbia University for an M.Sc. in biology and a doctorate in zoology in 1921. Romer joined the department of geology and paleontology at the University of Chicago as an associate professor in 1923. He

4352-402: Was not closely related to other traditional "crurotarsans", at least compared to avemetatarsalians such as pterosaurs and dinosaurs . As a result, Crurotarsi could be a much broader clade than Pseudosuchia. Other recent studies support a more traditional phylogeny. Contrary to popular belief, crocodilians differ significantly from their ancestors and distant relatives, as Pseudosuchia contains

4420-469: Was the first to recognise the gap in the fossil record between the tetrapods of the Devonian and the later Carboniferous period, a gap that has borne the name Romer's gap since 1995. A romerogram, also called spindle diagram, or bubble diagram, is a diagram popularised by Alfred Romer. It represents taxonomic diversity (horizontal width) against geological time (vertical axis) in order to reflect

4488-567: Was then defined, must include not only crocodilian-line archosaurs, but all other archosaurs including birds, non-avian dinosaurs , and pterosaurs . The clade Pseudosuchia as originally defined could still be used to identify crocodilian-line archosaurs, and since many recent studies support Nesbitt's findings, Pseudosuchia is again commonly used. The name Pseudosuchia was coined by Karl Alfred von Zittel in 1887–1890 to include three taxa (two aetosaurs and Dyoplax ) that were superficially crocodilian-like, but were not actually crocodilian. Hence

4556-580: Was under the control of the Frankish Empire ). Frankochiotika / Φραγκοχιώτικα (meaning 'Catholic Chiot') alludes to the significant presence of Catholic missionaries based on the island of Chios . Additionally, the term Greeklish is often used when the Greek language is written in a Latin script in online communications. The Latin script is nowadays used by the Greek-speaking communities of Southern Italy . The Yevanic dialect

4624-673: Was written by Romaniote and Constantinopolitan Karaite Jews using the Hebrew Alphabet . In a tradition, that in modern time, has come to be known as Greek Aljamiado , some Greek Muslims from Crete wrote their Cretan Greek in the Arabic alphabet . The same happened among Epirote Muslims in Ioannina . This also happened among Arabic-speaking Byzantine rite Christians in the Levant ( Lebanon , Palestine, and Syria ). This usage

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