92-706: Chloroselas mazoensis , the purple gem , is a butterfly of the family Lycaenidae . It is found in South Africa , in northern KwaZulu-Natal , Mpumalanga , Limpopo and North West provinces. It is also found in Zimbabwe . The wingspan is 20–24 mm for males and 22–25 mm females. Adults are on wing from September to December and again in May and/or June in a small second generation in northern KwaZulu-Natal. The larvae probably feed on young shoots of Acacia species. This Aphnaeinae -related article
184-505: A chrysalis . When metamorphosis is complete, the pupal skin splits, the adult insect climbs out, expands its wings to dry, and flies off. Some butterflies, especially in the tropics, have several generations in a year, while others have a single generation, and a few in cold locations may take several years to pass through their entire life cycle. Butterflies are often polymorphic , and many species make use of camouflage , mimicry , and aposematism to evade their predators. Some, like
276-637: A diapause (resting) stage, and the hatching may take place only in spring. Some temperate region butterflies, such as the Camberwell beauty , lay their eggs in the spring and have them hatch in the summer. Butterfly larvae, or caterpillars, consume plant leaves and spend practically all of their time searching for and eating food. Although most caterpillars are herbivorous, a few species are predators : Spalgis epius eats scale insects , while lycaenids such as Liphyra brassolis are myrmecophilous , eating ant larvae. Some larvae, especially those of
368-473: A sulphur yellow wing colouration and females having a greenish-white wing colouration. Additionally, males have iridescent dorsal wings that change in colour and appearance under ultraviolet light, while females do not. Both males and females have orange spots in the discoidal cell of each wing, pink head and antennae, and a thorax covered in white hair. The common brimstone undergoes some regional migration between hibernation and breeding areas throughout
460-493: A butterfly cannot fly until the wings are unfolded. A newly emerged butterfly needs to spend some time inflating its wings with hemolymph and letting them dry, during which time it is extremely vulnerable to predators. The colourful patterns on many butterfly wings tell potential predators that they are toxic. Hence, the genetic basis of wing pattern formation can illuminate both the evolution of butterflies as well as their developmental biology . The colour of butterfly wings
552-570: A butterfly through metamorphosis has held great appeal to mankind. To transform from the miniature wings visible on the outside of the pupa into large structures usable for flight, the pupal wings undergo rapid mitosis and absorb a great deal of nutrients. If one wing is surgically removed early on, the other three will grow to a larger size. In the pupa, the wing forms a structure that becomes compressed from top to bottom and pleated from proximal to distal ends as it grows, so that it can rapidly be unfolded to its full adult size. Several boundaries seen in
644-417: A common family. In some species, such as the great spangled fritillary , the eggs are deposited close to but not on the food plant. This most likely happens when the egg overwinters before hatching and where the host plant loses its leaves in winter, as do violets in this example. The egg stage lasts a few weeks in most butterflies, but eggs laid close to winter, especially in temperate regions, go through
736-603: A cue for finding and distinguishing nectar plants, allowing more energy to be utilised for other activities such as reproduction. The adult common brimstone overwinters for seven months, remaining hidden and motionless throughout its hibernation. While both sexes have similar egg to adult development times, they differ in the times that they reach sexual maturity. The reproductive development of males begins just after pupal emergence, and continues during hibernation, which indicates that males may not be able to reproduce until after overwintering. For females, eggs remain undeveloped as
828-576: A few butterflies (e.g., harvesters ) eat harmful insects, and a few are predators of ants , while others live as mutualists in association with ants. Culturally, butterflies are a popular motif in the visual and literary arts. The Smithsonian Institution says "butterflies are certainly one of the most appealing creatures in nature". The Oxford English Dictionary derives the word straightforwardly from Old English butorflēoge , butter-fly; similar names in Old Dutch and Old High German show that
920-444: A few species. Some butterflies have organs of hearing and some species make stridulatory and clicking sounds. Many species of butterfly maintain territories and actively chase other species or individuals that may stray into them. Some species will bask or perch on chosen perches. The flight styles of butterflies are often characteristic and some species have courtship flight displays. Butterflies can only fly when their temperature
1012-606: A hard-ridged outer layer of shell, called the chorion . This is lined with a thin coating of wax which prevents the egg from drying out before the larva has had time to fully develop. Each egg contains a number of tiny funnel-shaped openings at one end, called micropyles ; the purpose of these holes is to allow sperm to enter and fertilize the egg. Butterfly eggs vary greatly in size and shape between species, but are usually upright and finely sculptured. Some species lay eggs singly, others in batches. Many females produce between one hundred and two hundred eggs. Butterfly eggs are fixed to
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#17327651378131104-508: A leaf before eggs are laid on it. Many butterflies use chemical signals, pheromones ; some have specialized scent scales ( androconia ) or other structures ( coremata or "hair pencils" in the Danaidae). Vision is well developed in butterflies and most species are sensitive to the ultraviolet spectrum. Many species show sexual dimorphism in the patterns of UV reflective patches. Colour vision may be widespread but has been demonstrated in only
1196-416: A leaf with a special glue which hardens rapidly. As it hardens it contracts, deforming the shape of the egg. This glue is easily seen surrounding the base of every egg forming a meniscus. The nature of the glue has been little researched but in the case of Pieris brassicae , it begins as a pale yellow granular secretion containing acidophilic proteins. This is viscous and darkens when exposed to air, becoming
1288-547: A longer lifespan of several months as adults. The thorax of the butterfly is devoted to locomotion. Each of the three thoracic segments has two legs (among nymphalids , the first pair is reduced and the insects walk on four legs). The second and third segments of the thorax bear the wings. The leading edges of the forewings have thick veins to strengthen them, and the hindwings are smaller and more rounded and have fewer stiffening veins. The forewings and hindwings are not hooked together ( as they are in moths ) but are coordinated by
1380-452: A necessity for their successful establishment. Many butterflies, such as the painted lady , monarch, and several danaine migrate for long distances. These migrations take place over a number of generations and no single individual completes the whole trip. The eastern North American population of monarchs can travel thousands of miles south-west to overwintering sites in Mexico . There is
1472-658: A reverse migration in the spring. It has recently been shown that the British painted lady undertakes a 9,000-mile round trip in a series of steps by up to six successive generations, from tropical Africa to the Arctic Circle — almost double the length of the famous migrations undertaken by monarch. Spectacular large-scale migrations associated with the monsoon are seen in peninsular India. Migrations have been studied in more recent times using wing tags and also using stable hydrogen isotopes . Butterflies navigate using
1564-412: A segmented palp. Adjoining these is the labium-hypopharynx which houses a tubular spinneret which is able to extrude silk. Caterpillars such as those in the genus Calpodes (family Hesperiidae) have a specialized tracheal system on the 8th segment that function as a primitive lung. Butterfly caterpillars have three pairs of true legs on the thoracic segments and up to six pairs of prolegs arising from
1656-615: A silk padding, and a length of silk secures the pupae around its middle. The pupae have a primarily green colouration, but right before adult emergence for males, the wing areas turn yellow. Adults emerge during the summer, from June to August, and continue to feed until September. The common brimstone hibernates for the next seven months of winter, remaining inactive until April, where they then emerge and proceed to reproduce and lay eggs. Adult brimstones are highly abundant for several months after their emergence from overwintering. The common brimstone has sexual dichromism, with males having
1748-435: A silken girdle may be spun to keep the pupa in a head-up position. Most of the tissues and cells of the larva are broken down inside the pupa, as the constituent material is rebuilt into the imago. The structure of the transforming insect is visible from the exterior, with the wings folded flat on the ventral surface and the two halves of the proboscis, with the antennae and the legs between them. The pupal transformation into
1840-413: A stronger reliance on visual indications such as colour compared with other butterfly species, which rely more on odour. The common brimstone has an antennal response to the floral scent compounds of nectar plants, where neural activity in antennal olfactory receptors occurs in the presence of certain compounds. Research suggests that there are antennal olfactory receptors for phenylacetaldehyde and
1932-410: A time-compensated sun compass. They can see polarized light and therefore orient even in cloudy conditions. The polarized light near the ultraviolet spectrum appears to be particularly important. Many migratory butterflies live in semi-arid areas where breeding seasons are short. The life histories of their host plants also influence butterfly behaviour. Butterflies in their adult stage can live from
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#17327651378132024-541: A total of about 20,000 species. Traditionally, butterflies have been divided into the superfamilies Papilionoidea and the moth-like Hedyloidea . Recent work has discovered that Hedylidae, the only family within Hedyloidea, is nested within the Papilionoidea, meaning that Papilionoidea would be synonymous with Rhopalocera. The relationships between the rest of the 6 families are extremely well resolved, which
2116-470: A trend towards multivoltinism . Courtship is often aerial and often involves pheromones . Butterflies then land on the ground or on a perch to mate. Copulation takes place tail-to-tail and may last from minutes to hours. Simple photoreceptor cells located at the genitals are important for this and other adult behaviours. The male passes a spermatophore to the female; to reduce sperm competition, he may cover her with his scent, or in some species such as
2208-486: A tubular proboscis which is curled up at rest and expanded when needed to feed. The first and second maxillae bear palps which function as sensory organs. Some species have a reduced proboscis or maxillary palps and do not feed as adults. Many Heliconius butterflies also use their proboscis to feed on pollen; in these species only 20% of the amino acids used in reproduction come from larval feeding, which allow them to develop more quickly as caterpillars, and gives them
2300-437: A water-insoluble, rubbery material which soon sets solid. Butterflies in the genus Agathymus do not fix their eggs to a leaf; instead, the newly laid eggs fall to the base of the plant. Eggs are almost invariably laid on plants. Each species of butterfly has its own host plant range and while some species of butterfly are restricted to just one species of plant, others use a range of plant species, often including members of
2392-422: A week to nearly a year depending on the species. Many species have long larval life stages while others can remain dormant in their pupal or egg stages and thereby survive winters. The Melissa Arctic ( Oeneis melissa ) overwinters twice as a caterpillar. Butterflies may have one or more broods per year. The number of generations per year varies from temperate to tropical regions with tropical regions showing
2484-517: Is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Butterfly Butterflies are winged insects from the lepidopteran suborder Rhopalocera , characterized by large, often brightly coloured wings that often fold together when at rest, and a conspicuous, fluttering flight. The group comprises the superfamilies Hedyloidea (moth-butterflies in the Americas) and Papilionoidea (all others). The oldest butterfly fossils have been dated to
2576-450: Is above 27 °C (81 °F); when it is cool, they can position themselves to expose the underside of the wings to the sunlight to heat themselves up. If their body temperature reaches 40 °C (104 °F), they can orientate themselves with the folded wings edgewise to the sun. Basking is an activity which is more common in the cooler hours of the morning. Some species have evolved dark wingbases to help in gathering more heat and this
2668-618: Is affected by environmental factors. It was first described and published in Linnaeus's book, the 10th edition of Systema Naturae in 1758. Brimstone is an old name for sulphur , the colour which matches the colour of the male's wings. The common brimstone can be commonly found throughout the Palearctic . Individuals have been seen from western Europe to east Asia . The high mobility of this butterfly allows it to search widely for new host plant locations and expand its range. While
2760-446: Is caused by different structural and pigment components. These differences cause light to scatter in different ways, leading to the different colours. In the common brimstone, wing scales scatter light incoherently due to ovoid-shaped structures called beads that contain pigments . Due to these pigments, the beads absorb short wavelength light and scatter longer wavelengths outside of the pigment absorption spectrum, such as light in
2852-568: Is correlated with host plant development. As of 2010, G. rhamni does not appear to have a threatened conservation status according to IUCN standards. However, the butterfly has experienced significant population and distribution reduction in areas such as the Netherlands , where its numbers have declined to the point that based on IUCN criterion, it has reached endangered species status. The causes of this population decline are not fully determined, but there are several possible factors. Since
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2944-713: Is damage; undamaged plants indicate the absence of other eggs, as brimstone larvae leave holes in the leaves of the plants on which they feed. Since predators and parasites are attracted to damaged plants through chemical or visual signals, less damage leads to greater offspring survival since eggs are less likely to be detected. Plants exposed to both sunlight and the open lead to reduced chances of predation and parasitism as well, and are more accessible to adult butterflies. Larvae can also benefit from decreased host plant defences; juvenile plants and plants with late bud-bursts produce fewer toxic defence chemicals, as resources are directed more towards plant growth. The common brimstone
3036-458: Is derived from tiny structures called scales, each of which have their own pigments . In Heliconius butterflies, there are three types of scales: yellow/white, black, and red/orange/brown scales. Some mechanism of wing pattern formation are now being solved using genetic techniques. For instance, a gene called cortex determines the colour of scales: deleting cortex turned black and red scales yellow. Mutations, e.g. transposon insertions of
3128-403: Is especially evident in alpine forms. As in many other insects, the lift generated by butterflies is more than can be accounted for by steady-state, non-transitory aerodynamics . Studies using Vanessa atalanta in a wind tunnel show that they use a wide variety of aerodynamic mechanisms to generate force. These include wake capture , vortices at the wing edge, rotational mechanisms and
3220-410: Is extruded and inserted into the female's vagina. A spermatophore is deposited in the female, following which the sperm make their way to a seminal receptacle where they are stored for later use. In both sexes, the genitalia are adorned with various spines, teeth, scales and bristles, which act to prevent the butterfly from mating with an insect of another species. After it emerges from its pupal stage,
3312-451: Is good, especially in some species in the blue/violet range. The antennae are composed of many segments and have clubbed tips (unlike moths that have tapering or feathery antennae). The sensory receptors are concentrated in the tips and can detect odours. Taste receptors are located on the palps and on the feet. The mouthparts are adapted to sucking and the mandibles are usually reduced in size or absent. The first maxillae are elongated into
3404-407: Is highly similar to the leaves of these plants, so during hibernation it can remain hidden. In other seasons, habitat selection is also affected by the abundance of nectar as a food source for adult brimstones. Larval brimstones appear to feed on only two plant sources: the alder buckthorn ( Frangula alnus ) and the common buckthorn ( Rhamnus carthartica) . This influences the distribution of
3496-581: Is native to the Americas, but in the nineteenth century or before, spread across the world, and is now found in Australia, New Zealand, other parts of Oceania, and the Iberian Peninsula . It is not clear how it dispersed; adults may have been blown by the wind or larvae or pupae may have been accidentally transported by humans, but the presence of suitable host plants in their new environment was
3588-447: Is one of the longest-living butterflies, with a life expectancy ranging from 10 months to a year. Due to its hibernation and life cycle, it has one generation per year. Development from the laid egg to the emergence of the imago is approximately 50 days. However, the adult brimstone spends a large portion of its life in an overwintering state. The brimstone is highly mobile, feeding and travelling to regions ideal for hibernation during
3680-493: Is potentially influenced by habitat limitations, such as a lack of the forest cover that is required during overwintering. Brimstones travel to higher elevations for greater forest cover and reduced exposure to higher temperatures during their activities. Downhill migration is influenced by the need for larval resources such as host plants during breeding seasons - the butterflies travel to lower elevations in search for regions containing these plants, with adults commonly returning to
3772-583: Is primarily monandrous , as demonstrated by the presence of usually only a single spermatophore in females throughout the mating season. Pairs are formed after the butterflies have engaged in a dalliance flight for a period of time. When a pair settles to mate, they do not take flight during copulation and remain paired for a long time of up to forty-eight hours. The common brimstone appears to have an innate preference for certain colours in nectar plants – red and blue inflorescences are common in heavily used nectar sources in some regions. G. rhamni also has
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3864-465: Is restricted to the males, and studies have suggested that the nutrients collected may be provided as a nuptial gift , along with the spermatophore, during mating. In hilltopping , males of some species seek hilltops and ridge tops, which they patrol in search for females. Since it usually occurs in species with low population density, it is assumed these landscape points are used as meeting places to find mates. Butterflies use their antennae to sense
3956-698: Is summarized in the below cladogram. Papilionidae [REDACTED] Hedylidae [REDACTED] Hesperiidae [REDACTED] Pieridae [REDACTED] Nymphalidae [REDACTED] Lycaenidae [REDACTED] Riodinidae [REDACTED] Butterfly adults are characterized by their four scale-covered wings, which give the Lepidoptera their name ( Ancient Greek λεπίς lepís, scale + πτερόν pterón, wing). These scales give butterfly wings their colour: they are pigmented with melanins that give them blacks and browns, as well as uric acid derivatives and flavones that give them yellows, but many of
4048-405: Is taken up by the gut, but there may also be large silk glands, and special glands which secrete distasteful or toxic substances. The developing wings are present in later stage instars and the gonads start development in the egg stage. When the larva is fully grown, hormones such as prothoracicotropic hormone (PTTH) are produced. At this point the larva stops feeding, and begins "wandering" in
4140-572: Is the only species of its genus , and is therefore simply known locally as the brimstone . Its wing span size is 60–74 mm (2.4–2.9 in). It should not be confused with the brimstone moth Opisthograptis luteolata . The brimstone relies on two species of buckthorn plants as host plants for its larvae; this influences its geographic range and distribution, as these plants are commonly found in wetlands. The adult brimstone travels to woodland areas to spend seven months overwintering . In spring when their host plants have developed, they return to
4232-479: The Lycaenidae , form mutual associations with ants. They communicate with the ants using vibrations that are transmitted through the substrate as well as using chemical signals. The ants provide some degree of protection to these larvae and they in turn gather honeydew secretions . Large blue ( Phengaris arion ) caterpillars trick Myrmica ants into taking them back to the ant colony where they feed on
4324-528: The Paleocene , about 56 million years ago, though molecular likely originated in the Cretaceous . Butterflies have a four-stage life cycle , and like other holometabolous insects they undergo complete metamorphosis . Winged adults lay eggs on the food plant on which their larvae , known as caterpillars , will feed. The caterpillars grow, sometimes very rapidly, and when fully developed, pupate in
4416-474: The Weis-Fogh ' clap-and-fling ' mechanism. Butterflies are able to change from one mode to another rapidly. Butterflies are threatened in their early stages by parasitoids and in all stages by predators, diseases and environmental factors. Braconid and other parasitic wasps lay their eggs in lepidopteran eggs or larvae and the wasps' parasitoid larvae devour their hosts, usually pupating inside or outside
4508-455: The ZW sex-determination system where females are the heterogametic sex (ZW) and males homogametic (ZZ). Butterflies are distributed worldwide except Antarctica, totalling some 18,500 species. Of these, 775 are Nearctic ; 7,700 Neotropical ; 1,575 Palearctic ; 3,650 Afrotropical ; and 4,800 are distributed across the combined Oriental and Australian / Oceania regions. The monarch butterfly
4600-412: The alder buckthorn . The common brimstone prefers laying eggs on younger host plants with late bud-bursts that are isolated from other plants in the area and exposed to both open space and sun. During the winter, adult brimstones travel to woodlands to hibernate , as they provide ideal overwintering sites with shelters such as evergreen foliage and holly . The common brimstone has an appearance that
4692-419: The complementary wavelength range. Through chemical extraction and analysis, two possible pigments have been identified that may contribute to the common brimstone's wing coloration. Xanthopterin is responsible for the sulphur yellow colour of the male wings since it absorbs in the violet range. Leucopterin was extracted from the white wings of females. The difference in wing pigmentation contributes to
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#17327651378134784-402: The monarch and the painted lady , migrate over long distances. Many butterflies are attacked by parasites or parasitoids , including wasps , protozoans , flies , and other invertebrates, or are preyed upon by other organisms. Some species are pests because in their larval stages they can damage domestic crops or trees; other species are agents of pollination of some plants. Larvae of
4876-600: The non-coding DNA around the cortex gene can turn a black-winged butterfly into a butterfly with a yellow wing band. When the butterfly Bicyclus anynana is subjected to repeated inbreeding in the laboratory, there is a dramatic decrease in egg hatching. This severe inbreeding depression is considered to be likely due to a relatively high mutation rate to recessive alleles with substantial damaging effects and infrequent episodes of inbreeding in nature that might otherwise purge such mutations. Although B. anynana experiences inbreeding depression when forcibly inbred in
4968-542: The terpene compounds oxoisophoroneoxide, oxoisophorone, and dihydrooxoisophorone, as these compounds elicited some of the strongest electrophysiological responses whether they were presented in natural or synthetic mixes of floral compounds. Additionally, these two compounds are present in the largest quantities in the nectar plants utilised by the brimstone, indicating that scent detection could be important for detecting food sources. This would contribute to more efficient foraging in adult butterflies, as odour could act as
5060-586: The " gynandromorphic effect". This demonstrates that the pattern appears to be optical, rather than pigmental, as the effect is only seen at certain angles and distances of light and changes with positions. If it were pigmental, these changes would not cause differences in iridescence. The structural coloration of the male dorsal wings is affected by environmental factors. There is an increase in ultraviolet coloration coverage with increasing temperature , increasing precipitation , and decreasing latitude . This has been possibly attributed to several factors, such as
5152-540: The Apollos ( Parnassius ) plugs her genital opening to prevent her from mating again. The vast majority of butterflies have a four-stage life cycle: egg , larva (caterpillar), pupa (chrysalis) and imago (adult). In the genera Colias , Erebia , Euchloe , and Parnassius , a small number of species are known that reproduce semi-parthenogenetically ; when the female dies, a partially developed larva emerges from her abdomen. Butterfly eggs are protected by
5244-430: The abdomen, generally with short prolegs on segments 3–6 and 10; the three pairs of true legs on the thorax have five segments each. Many are well camouflaged; others are aposematic with bright colours and bristly projections containing toxic chemicals obtained from their food plants. The pupa or chrysalis, unlike that of moths, is not wrapped in a cocoon. Many butterflies are sexually dimorphic . Most butterflies have
5336-405: The abdominal segments. These prolegs have rings of tiny hooks called crochets that are engaged hydrostatically and help the caterpillar grip the substrate. The epidermis bears tufts of setae , the position and number of which help in identifying the species. There is also decoration in the form of hairs, wart-like protuberances, horn-like protuberances and spines. Internally, most of the body cavity
5428-488: The adult brimstone, as the presence of these two buckthorn species is necessary for the survival of their offspring. Unlike their larval forms, which are specialised for particular host plants, adult brimstones are not specialised nectar feeders. The common brimstone heavily feeds on the nectar of several flowering species including knapweed ( Centaurea jacea ) and scabious ( Knautia arvensis and Succisa pratensis ). However, brimstones have also been observed feeding on
5520-502: The adult colour pattern are marked by changes in the expression of particular transcription factors in the early pupa. The reproductive stage of the insect is the winged adult or imago . The surface of both butterflies and moths is covered by scales, each of which is an outgrowth from a single epidermal cell. The head is small and dominated by the two large compound eyes . These are capable of distinguishing flower shapes or motion but cannot view distant objects clearly. Colour perception
5612-467: The air for wind and scents. The antennae come in various shapes and colours; the hesperiids have a pointed angle or hook to the antennae, while most other families show knobbed antennae. The antennae are richly covered with sensory organs known as sensillae . A butterfly's sense of taste is coordinated by chemoreceptors on the tarsi , or feet, which work only on contact, and are used to determine whether an egg-laying insect's offspring will be able to feed on
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#17327651378135704-434: The ant eggs and larvae in a parasitic relationship. Caterpillars mature through a series of developmental stages known as instars . Near the end of each stage, the larva undergoes a process called apolysis , mediated by the release of a series of neurohormones . During this phase, the cuticle , a tough outer layer made of a mixture of chitin and specialized proteins , is released from the softer epidermis beneath, and
5796-528: The areas where they had been bred due to their long lifespan. Like most woodland Lepidoptera, G. rhamni is preyed upon by many species of birds and wasps . Both larvae and adult brimstones fall victim to predation and use means such as protective coloration and mimicry to avoid this fate. The common brimstone has two recorded species of parasites: the braconids Cotesia gonopterygis and Cotesia risilis . These two species of parasitoid wasps are completely specialised for G. rhamni , possibly due to
5888-658: The blues, greens, reds and iridescent colours are created by structural coloration produced by the micro-structures of the scales and hairs. As in all insects, the body is divided into three sections: the head, thorax , and abdomen . The thorax is composed of three segments, each with a pair of legs. In most families of butterfly the antennae are clubbed, unlike those of moths which may be threadlike or feathery. The long proboscis can be coiled when not in use for sipping nectar from flowers. Nearly all butterflies are diurnal , have relatively bright colours, and hold their wings vertically above their bodies when at rest, unlike
5980-479: The butterflies overwinter, and no reproductive development occurs until after emergence from hibernation. The sexes also differ in times of emergence after overwintering. Emergence is correlated with temperature and hours of sunlight; a certain amount of both is necessary for the butterfly to emerge from hibernation and therefore influences when diapause ends. Males emerge earlier than females, as they are more willing to fly in lower temperatures than females. Since
6072-493: The common brimstone is univoltine, it may have difficulties adapting to changing environmental conditions compared to species that have multiple generations a year. For example, there has been a decrease in suitable overwintering environments for the butterflies, with open woodland decreasing in favour of more urban areas. Nitrogen pollution, declining nectar supplies, and rapid ecological changes have also been suggested as other hypothetical factors. Concerns have been raised about
6164-439: The common brimstone most closely follows monandrous mating patterns, males may emerge earlier to increase the number of mating chances and therefore reproductive success, as older males have had more time to develop and therefore have a greater advantage. In contrast, females emerge late due to the late seasonal development of host plants such as the alder buckthorn, since these plants are necessary for egg-laying. Female emergence
6256-411: The common brimstone undergo five instars , initially having a length of 1.7 mm in the first instar and reaching up to 34.9 mm in length when fully grown. The caterpillars have a green colouration with white hairs and dark tubercules across its length. When they first hatch, they move to the top side of the leaves and eat them, leaving characteristic hole patterns in their host plants. During
6348-412: The day, they feed and then rest in the open, lying still on the midrib of leaves, where their colouration makes them difficult to distinguish. Pupation occurs over approximately two weeks. The pupae are 22.2-23.8 mm in length and have the appearance of a curled leaf, with pointed ends and bulges in the middle. The pupae are secured to stems and leaves using silk; a cremastral hook attaches to
6440-441: The desiccated husk. Most wasps are very specific about their host species and some have been used as biological controls of pest butterflies like the large white butterfly . When the small cabbage white was accidentally introduced to New Zealand, it had no natural enemies. In order to control it, some pupae that had been parasitised by a chalcid wasp were imported, and natural control was thus regained. Some flies lay their eggs on
6532-467: The distinct iridescence patterns of males and females. Iridescence occurs due to visualised changes in coloration from the scattering of ultraviolet light. A male-only pattern of coloration due to this iridescence is seen exclusively under ultraviolet light, since females absorb light on the ultraviolet spectra. The presence of exclusively leucopterin in female wings explains the lack of iridescence in female common brimstones, since leucopterin absorbs only in
6624-419: The epidermis begins to form a new cuticle. At the end of each instar, the larva moults , the old cuticle splits and the new cuticle expands, rapidly hardening and developing pigment. Development of butterfly wing patterns begins by the last larval instar. Caterpillars have short antennae and several simple eyes . The mouthparts are adapted for chewing with powerful mandibles and a pair of maxillae, each with
6716-741: The family Hesperiidae (skippers). Molecular clock estimates suggest that butterflies originated sometime in the Late Cretaceous , but only significantly diversified during the Cenozoic, with one study suggesting a North American origin for the group. The oldest American butterfly is the Late Eocene Prodryas persephone from the Florissant Fossil Beds , approximately 34 million years old. Butterflies are divided into seven families that contain
6808-409: The friction of their overlapping parts. The front two segments have a pair of spiracles which are used in respiration. The abdomen consists of ten segments and contains the gut and genital organs. The front eight segments have spiracles and the terminal segment is modified for reproduction. The male has a pair of clasping organs attached to a ring structure, and during copulation, a tubular structure
6900-429: The geographic distribution of the adult is larger than that of its host plant, its range is nevertheless limited by the presence of host plants due to the needs of its larval stage. The common brimstone uses various environments for different stages of its life cycle. The butterfly inhabits wetlands during mating and breeding season, as they provide ideal areas for oviposition due to an abundance of host plants like
6992-555: The grass was growing. The earliest Lepidoptera fossils date to the Triassic - Jurassic boundary, around 200 million years ago. Butterflies evolved from moths, so while the butterflies are monophyletic (forming a single clade ), the moths are not. The oldest known butterfly is Protocoeliades kristenseni from the Palaeocene aged Fur Formation of Denmark, approximately 55 million years old, which belongs to
7084-447: The greater abundance and quality of resources in areas with these environmental conditions. Other possibilities include a better ability to assimilate resources as an indication of male mate quality. Because ultraviolet coloration is energetically expensive to develop, it could signal high male quality. After the common brimstone emerges from hibernation, it travels towards habitats that contain larval host plants and mates. The brimstone
7176-1030: The laboratory it recovers within a few generation when allowed to breed freely. During mate selection, adult females do not innately avoid or learn to avoid siblings, implying that such detection may not be critical to reproductive fitness. Inbreeding may persist in B anynana because the probability of encountering close relatives is rare in nature; that is, movement ecology may mask the deleterious effect of inbreeding resulting in relaxation of selection for active inbreeding avoidance behaviors. Butterflies feed primarily on nectar from flowers. Some also derive nourishment from pollen , tree sap, rotting fruit, dung, decaying flesh, and dissolved minerals in wet sand or dirt. Butterflies are important as pollinators for some species of plants. In general, they do not carry as much pollen load as bees , but they are capable of moving pollen over greater distances. Flower constancy has been observed for at least one species of butterfly. Adult butterflies consume only liquids, ingested through
7268-439: The late summer and fall, and returning to regions ideal for mating and egg-laying during the spring. Adult common brimstones lay eggs singly on the underside of buckthorn leaves. The eggs are around 1.3 mm tall, and are spindle-shaped in appearance. The eggs change colour over time, initially having a greenish-white colouration, then progressively darker shades of yellow, and finally brown before hatching. The larvae of
7360-506: The majority of moths which fly by night, are often cryptically coloured (well camouflaged), and either hold their wings flat (touching the surface on which the moth is standing) or fold them closely over their bodies. Some day-flying moths, such as the hummingbird hawk-moth , are exceptions to these rules. Butterfly larvae , caterpillars , have a hard ( sclerotised ) head with strong mandibles used for cutting their food, most often leaves. They have cylindrical bodies, with ten segments to
7452-401: The name is ancient, but modern Dutch and German use different words ( vlinder and Schmetterling ) and the common name often varies substantially between otherwise closely related languages. A possible source of the name is the bright yellow male of the brimstone ( Gonepteryx rhamni ); another is that butterflies were on the wing in meadows during the spring and summer butter season while
7544-502: The nectar of coltsfoot ( Tussilago farfara ) in April and May and have been recorded gathering nectar from many other species of flowers. Adult food plant availability is another factor that is important for habitat selection. The common brimstone is univoltine , meaning that it lays one generation of eggs each year. There are several ideal characteristics of the particular host plants chosen for oviposition. Adult brimstones lay eggs on
7636-545: The open undetected. When not eating, the caterpillars remain still in a position alongside the midrib of leaves, making them even more difficult to spot. Adult brimstones are leaf-mimics, as they share similarities in shape, colour, and pattern to leaves. This allows them to blend in with their surroundings during vulnerable times like diapause (hibernation). When picked up, the butterflies become rigid and hide their legs from view in order to decrease their chances of being recognised. Variation in coloration of Lepidoptera wings
7728-486: The outside of caterpillars and the newly hatched fly larvae bore their way through the skin and feed in a similar way to the parasitoid wasp larvae. Predators of butterflies include ants, spiders, wasps, and birds. Gonepteryx rhamni Gonepteryx rhamni , commonly named the common brimstone , is a butterfly of the family Pieridae . It lives throughout the Palearctic zone and is commonly found across Europe, Asia, and North Africa . Across much of its range, it
7820-529: The proboscis. They sip water from damp patches for hydration and feed on nectar from flowers, from which they obtain sugars for energy, and sodium and other minerals vital for reproduction. Several species of butterflies need more sodium than that provided by nectar and are attracted by sodium in salt; they sometimes land on people, attracted by the salt in human sweat. Some butterflies also visit dung and scavenge rotting fruit or carcasses to obtain minerals and nutrients. In many species, this mud-puddling behaviour
7912-431: The quest for a suitable pupation site, often the underside of a leaf or other concealed location. There it spins a button of silk which it uses to fasten its body to the surface and moults for a final time. While some caterpillars spin a cocoon to protect the pupa, most species do not. The naked pupa, often known as a chrysalis, usually hangs head down from the cremaster, a spiny pad at the posterior end, but in some species
8004-415: The ultraviolet range. Therefore, the wings do not reflect and consequently do not scatter any ultraviolet light like male wings do. In males, iridescence is indicated in that the wing pattern appears to visually change depending on the position of the ultraviolet light shone onto the wing. At some angles, a male pattern is seen, while at other angles, a female lack of pattern is seen. This is referred to as
8096-410: The underside of the leaves of the two species of host plants, where they are less conspicuous. The high mobility of G. rhamni enables the butterflies to find even the most isolated host plants in an area, which are more ideal for their offspring. Eggs are more likely to be deposited on outlying plants, leading to reduced vulnerability as fewer predators are attracted to these plants. Another factor
8188-415: The wetlands to breed and lay eggs. Both the larval and adult forms of the common brimstone have protective coloration and behaviour that decreases their chances of being recognised and subsequently preyed upon. The adult common brimstone has sexual dimorphism in its wing coloration: males have yellow wings and iridescence while females have greenish-white wings and are not iridescent. This iridescence
8280-402: The wetlands, where the host plant alder buckthorn is abundant. After emerging from overwintering, adult brimstones that were previously in the wetlands are joined by those that hibernated in woodlands, and the population breeds and lays eggs. The environmental conditions of a particular year also affect migration, as seen in the elevational migrations of the common brimstone. Uphill migration
8372-478: The wide distribution of the butterfly and the host plants in its habitats. The broad presence of its host allows the wasps to be host-specific. The wasps are primarily associated with the presence of the food plant Frangula alnus due to its association with their host. Both the larval and adult common brimstone exhibit cryptic colouration, meaning they match the colour of their habitats. Larvae are so difficult to see due to this colouration that they can remain in
8464-458: The year, as seen in the different chemical composition of butterflies across varying seasons and regions. In general, there is movement towards wetlands to reproduce. After the eggs hatch, develop, and pupate, newly hatched adult butterflies emerge and disperse locally into both woodlands and wetlands to overwinter. Butterflies travel to the woodlands for overwintering, and no mating appears to occur within these habitats. Overwintering also occurs in
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