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65-778: Iran captured a Scaneagle in December 2012 and the Qods Yasir was unveiled about ten months later, in September 2013. The Yasir's only state operators are Iran and Syria. It has been exported to at least one non-state actor and is alleged to have been exported to several more. Yasir UAVs have been used by Iranian allies in the civil wars in Iraq and Syria , likely because of their small footprint compared to larger Iranian UAVs. On 4 December 2012 Iran said it had captured an American Boeing Insitu ScanEagle that violated its airspace over

130-626: A "paradigm" in Kuhn's original sense. In The Structure of Scientific Revolutions , Kuhn wrote that "the successive transition from one paradigm to another via revolution is the usual developmental pattern of mature science" (p. 12). Paradigm shifts tend to appear in response to the accumulation of critical anomalies as well as in the form of the proposal of a new theory with the power to encompass both older relevant data and explain relevant anomalies. New paradigms tend to be most dramatic in sciences that appear to be stable and mature, as in physics at

195-587: A 16,000 ceiling, and a communications link distance of up to 100 km. At least some Yasirs are located at Iran's Qeshm Island drone base. Following the repetitive flying in early 2014 of an unidentified UAV over Lebanese Forces leader Samir Geagea 's Ma'arab complex, MP Antoine Zahra accused Hezbollah of flying a Yasir UAV in order to monitor and possibly assassinate Geagea. Israeli sources say Hezbollah has flown Yasir UAVs as well. The Iraqi Shia militia Harakat Hizballah al-Nujaba has received six Yasir UAVs. Kataib Hezbollah has also reportedly received

260-410: A century) led to a theory of atomic structure that accounts well for the bulk properties of matter; see, for example, Brady's General Chemistry . According to P J Smith, this ability of science to back off, move sideways, and then advance is characteristic of the natural sciences, but contrasts with the position in some social sciences, notably economics. This apparent ability does not guarantee that

325-467: A change in how a given society goes about organizing and understanding reality. A "dominant paradigm" refers to the values, or system of thought, in a society that are most standard and widely held at a given time. Dominant paradigms are shaped both by the community's cultural background and by the context of the historical moment. Hutchin outlines some conditions that facilitate a system of thought to become an accepted dominant paradigm: The word paradigm

390-512: A class of elements with similarities (as opposed to syntagma – a class of elements expressing relationship. ). The Merriam-Webster Online dictionary defines one usage of paradigm as "a philosophical and theoretical framework of a scientific school or discipline within which theories, laws, and generalizations and the experiments performed in support of them are formulated; broadly: a philosophical or theoretical framework of any kind ." The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy (2008) attributes

455-476: A discipline's core model of reality has happened in a more evolutionary manner, with individual scientists exploring the usefulness of alternatives in a way that would not be possible if they were constrained by a paradigm. Imre Lakatos suggested (as an alternative to Kuhn's formulation) that scientists actually work within research programmes . In Lakatos' sense, a research programme is a sequence of problems, placed in order of priority. This set of priorities, and

520-440: A field. The word paradigm is Greek in origin, meaning "pattern". Paradigm comes from Greek παράδειγμα ( paradeigma ); "pattern, example, sample"; from the verb παραδείκνυμι ( paradeiknumi ); "exhibit, represent, expose"; and that from παρά ( para ); "beside, beyond"; and δείκνυμι ( deiknumi ); "to show, to point out". In classical (Greek-based) rhetoric , a paradeigma aims to provide an audience with an illustration of

585-450: A long period during which no competing alternative has shown itself capable of resolving the anomaly. He also presented cases in which a dominant paradigm had withered away because its lost credibility when viewed against changes in the wider intellectual milieu. Kuhn himself did not consider the concept of paradigm as appropriate for the social sciences. He explains in his preface to The Structure of Scientific Revolutions that he developed

650-588: A paradigm can only apply to a system that is not in its final stage. Beyond its use in the physical and social sciences, Kuhn's paradigm concept has been analysed in relation to its applicability in identifying 'paradigms' with respect to worldviews at specific points in history. One example is Matthew Edward Harris' book The Notion of Papal Monarchy in the Thirteenth Century: The Idea of Paradigm in Church History . Harris stresses

715-464: A paradigm, research programme, research tradition, and/ or professional imagery. These structures will be motivating research, providing it with an agenda, defining what is and is not anomalous evidence, and inhibiting debate with other groups that fall under the same broad disciplinary label. (A good example is provided by the contrast between Skinnerian radical behaviourism and personal construct theory (PCT) within psychology. The most significant of

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780-446: A particular discipline, its paradigm is so convincing that it normally renders even the possibility of alternatives unconvincing and counter-intuitive. Such a paradigm is opaque , appearing to be a direct view of the bedrock of reality itself, and obscuring the possibility that there might be other, alternative imageries hidden behind it. The conviction that the current paradigm is reality tends to disqualify evidence that might undermine

845-413: A role in non-traditional governance. Many fragile states rely on non-state actors for protection and administration. More traditional methods of governance include local courts and clans, on the other end, non-traditional NSA groups govern as paramilitaries or rebel groups. The importance of this is that in the last 20 years non-state actors have acquired legal recognition due to their heavy involvement in

910-443: A similar occurrence. This illustration is not meant to take the audience to a conclusion; however, it is used to help guide them to get there. One way of how a paradeigma is meant to guide an audience would be exemplified by the role of a personal accountant. It is not the job of a personal accountant to tell a client exactly what (and what not) to spend money on, but to aid in guiding a client as to how money should be spent based on

975-484: A twin-boom empennage. The Yasir has a single, unidentified, two-bladed propeller engine. It carries an electro-optical payload. It can also be fitted with an explosive payload for use as a disposable strike munition. The Yasir is 1.19 meters long, has a wingspan of 3.05 meters, and weighs 18 kg. This is similar to, but slightly smaller than the ScanEagle. It has a speed of 120 km/h, a max endurance of 20 hours,

1040-436: Is also still used to indicate a pattern or model or an outstandingly clear or typical example or archetype . The term is frequently used in this sense in the design professions. Design Paradigms or archetypes comprise functional precedents for design solutions. The best known references on design paradigms are Design Paradigms: A Sourcebook for Creative Visualization , by Wake, and Design Paradigms by Petroski. This term

1105-430: Is also used in cybernetics . Here it means (in a very wide sense) a (conceptual) protoprogram for reducing the chaotic mass to some form of order. Note the similarities to the concept of entropy in chemistry and physics. A paradigm there would be a sort of prohibition to proceed with any action that would increase the total entropy of the system. To create a paradigm requires a closed system that accepts changes. Thus

1170-502: Is an example: it is not possible to see both the rabbit and the duck simultaneously.) This is significant in relation to the issue of incommensurability (see below). An example of a currently accepted paradigm would be the standard model of physics. The scientific method allows for orthodox scientific investigations into phenomena that might contradict or disprove the standard model; however grant funding would be proportionately more difficult to obtain for such experiments, depending on

1235-644: Is an individual or organization that has significant political influence but is not allied to any particular country or state. The interests, structure, and influence of NSAs vary widely. For example, among NSAs are non-profit organizations , labor unions , non-governmental organizations , banks , corporations , media organizations , business magnates , people's liberation movements , lobby groups , religious groups , aid agencies , and violent non-state actors such as paramilitary forces . Some common and influential classes of NSAs are listed here in alphabetical order: The proliferation of non-state actors since

1300-425: Is apparent from his analogy between a paradigm shift and the flip-over involved in some optical illusions. However, he subsequently diluted his commitment to incommensurability considerably, partly in the light of other studies of scientific development that did not involve revolutionary change. One of the examples of incommensurability that Kuhn used was the change in the style of chemical investigations that followed

1365-464: Is now generally seen as too limited. Some examples of contemporary paradigm shifts include: Kuhn's idea was, itself, revolutionary in its time. It caused a major change in the way that academics talk about science; and, so, it may be that it caused (or was part of) a "paradigm shift" in the history and sociology of science. However, Kuhn would not recognize such a paradigm shift. Being in the social sciences, people can still use earlier ideas to discuss

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1430-507: Is particularly challenging since international law and the norms governing the use of force for intervention or peacekeeping purposes were written primarily in the context of the nation-state. Additionally, armed non-state actors have recently been held accountable to international law with the United Nations Security Council ’s decision to allow the self-defense principle to be applied against an NSA. After

1495-424: Is structured. Normal science proceeds within such a framework or paradigm. A paradigm does not impose a rigid or mechanical approach, but can be taken more or less creatively and flexibly. The Oxford English Dictionary defines a paradigm as "a pattern or model, an exemplar; a typical instance of something, an example". The historian of science Thomas Kuhn gave the word its contemporary meaning when he adopted

1560-553: The Cold War ended has been one of the factors leading to the Cobweb Paradigm in international politics. Under this paradigm , the traditional Westphalian nation-state experiences an erosion of power and sovereignty, and non-state actors are part of the cause. Facilitated by globalization , NSAs challenge nation-state borders and sovereignty claims. MNCs are not always sympathetic to national interests but are loyal to

1625-824: The Cotonou Agreement between the European Union (EU) and African, Caribbean and Pacific ACP countries . The agreement uses the term to refer to a wide range of nongovernmental development actors whose participation in ACP-EU development cooperation is now formally recognized. According to Article 6, non-state actors include: In practice, it means that participation is open to all kind of actors, such as community-based organisations, women's groups, human rights associations, non-governmental organisations (NGOs), religious organizations, farmers' cooperatives , trade unions , universities and research institutes,

1690-595: The Human Rights Council . Formal international organizations may also rely on non-state actors, particularly NGOs in the form of implementing partners in the national context. An example is the contribution of COHRE (Centre on Housing Rights and Evictions), to the protection of land and property (HLP) rights in Kosovo by conceptualizing the Housing and Property Directorate (now Kosovo Property Agency) within

1755-529: The Persian Gulf . The U.S. Navy stated that none of its ScanEagles were missing. However, there are other ScanEagle operators in the Middle East. Later that month, on 17 December 2012, Iran amended their claim to three ScanEagles and said they would attempt to reverse engineer and mass-produce the ScanEagle. Bizarrely, Iran also claimed that they had already reverse-engineered, mass-produced, and entered

1820-473: The demiurge supposedly used to create the cosmos. The English-language term paradigm has technical meanings in the fields of grammar (as applied, for example, to declension and conjugation – the 1900 Merriam-Webster dictionary defines the technical use of paradigm only in the context of grammar) and of rhetoric (as a term for an illustrative parable or fable ). In linguistics , Ferdinand de Saussure (1857–1913) used paradigm to refer to

1885-451: The ScanEagle into service. The UAV was unveiled to the media in September 2013 when it entered service and received the name "Yasir." In October 2013, the IRGC presented Russian Air Force Commander Lieutenant General Viktor Bondarev with a Yasir drone as a gift. The Yasir has swept back wings and a large payload bubble under its nose. Unlike the ScanEagle, it has an inverted V-tail and

1950-657: The Yasir UAV, though they rarely use it. The Shiite militia "Jund al-Imam Ali" has also apparently received Yasir UAVs. A Yasir UAVs operated by the Syrian Army were seen over Damascus in 2013. They have also been spotted over Homs and Aleppo . At least 3 Syrian Yasir UAVs were shot down by Al-Nusra Front . Data from Drones Operating in Syria and Iraq and Tasnim News General characteristics Performance Non-state actor A non-state actor ( NSA )

2015-515: The account is veridical at any one time, of course, and most modern philosophers of science are fallibilists . However, members of other disciplines do see the issue of incommensurability as a much greater obstacle to evaluations of "progress"; see, for example, Martin Slattery's Key Ideas in Sociology . Opaque Kuhnian paradigms and paradigm shifts do exist. A few years after the discovery of

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2080-461: The armed NSA since most armed non-state actors often reside on the territory of a sovereign state , which thus may also endure a retaliatory or preemptive attack. The 9/11 attacks had a significant impact in demonstrating that non-state actors may be held accountable to international law and may contend in the political and the military arenas, alongside states. The term Non State Actors is widely used in development cooperation , particularly under

2145-424: The associated set of preferred techniques, is the positive heuristic of a programme. Each programme also has a negative heuristic ; this consists of a set of fundamental assumptions that – temporarily, at least – takes priority over observational evidence when the two appear to conflict. This latter aspect of research programmes is inherited from Kuhn's work on paradigms, and represents an important departure from

2210-457: The client's financial goals. Anaximenes defined paradeigma as "actions that have occurred previously and are similar to, or the opposite of, those which we are now discussing". The original Greek term παράδειγμα ( paradeigma ) was used by scribes in Greek texts (such as Plato 's dialogues Timaeus [ c. 360 BCE] and Parmenides ) as one possibility for the model or the pattern that

2275-426: The collection of evidence. These preconceptions embody both hidden assumptions and elements that Kuhn describes as quasi-metaphysical. The interpretations of the paradigm may vary among individual scientists. Kuhn was at pains to point out that the rationale for the choice of exemplars is a specific way of viewing reality: that view and the status of "exemplar" are mutually reinforcing. For well-integrated members of

2340-539: The concept of paradigm precisely to distinguish the social from the natural sciences. While visiting the Center for Advanced Study in the Behavioral Sciences in 1958 and 1959, surrounded by social scientists, he observed that they were never in agreement about the nature of legitimate scientific problems and methods. He explains that he wrote this book precisely to show that there can never be any paradigms in

2405-569: The corporation's interests instead. NSAs challenge the nation-state's sovereignty over internal matters through advocacy for societal issues, such as human rights and the environment. Armed non-state actors operate without state control and are involved in internal and trans-border conflicts. The activity of such groups in armed conflicts adds layers of complexity to traditional conflict management and resolution. The conflicts are often fought not only between non-state actors and states but also between multiple NSA groups. Interventions in such conflicts

2470-400: The degree of deviation from the accepted standard model theory the experiment would test for. To illustrate the point, an experiment to test for the mass of neutrinos or the decay of protons (small departures from the model) is more likely to receive money than experiments that look for the violation of the conservation of momentum, or ways to engineer reverse time travel. Mechanisms similar to

2535-544: The discovery of electrostatic photography , xerography and the quartz clock . Kuhn pointed out that it could be difficult to assess whether a particular paradigm shift had actually led to progress, in the sense of explaining more facts, explaining more important facts, or providing better explanations, because the understanding of "more important", "better", etc. changed with the paradigm. The two versions of reality are thus incommensurable . Kuhn's version of incommensurability has an important psychological dimension. This

2600-399: The elementary account of how science works . According to this, science proceeds through repeated cycles of observation, induction, hypothesis-testing, etc., with the test of consistency with empirical evidence being imposed at each stage. Paradigms and research programmes allow anomalies to be set aside, where there is reason to believe that they arise from incomplete knowledge (about either

2665-474: The end of the 19th century. At that time, a statement generally attributed to physicist Lord Kelvin famously claimed, "There is nothing new to be discovered in physics now. All that remains is more and more precise measurement." Five years later, Albert Einstein published his paper on special relativity , which challenged the set of rules laid down by Newtonian mechanics , which had been used to describe force and motion for over two hundred years. In this case,

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2730-403: The following description of the term in the history and philosophy of science to Thomas Kuhn 's 1962 work The Structure of Scientific Revolutions : Kuhn suggests that certain scientific works, such as Newton's Principia or John Dalton's New System of Chemical Philosophy (1808), provide an open-ended resource: a framework of concepts, results, and procedures within which subsequent work

2795-642: The framework of the United Nations Interim Administration Mission in Kosovo. Non-state actors are fundamental agents in helping to achieve both national and international development goals, such as those around climate change. Actions by non-state actors contribute significantly towards filling the greenhouse gas emissions gap left by unambitious or poorly executed national climate policies, Intended Nationally Determined Contributions (INDCs). Another example that shows

2860-479: The history of science. Perhaps the greatest barrier to a paradigm shift, in some cases, is the reality of paradigm paralysis : the inability or refusal to see beyond the current models of thinking. This is similar to what psychologists term confirmation bias and the Semmelweis reflex . Examples include rejection of Aristarchus of Samos' , Copernicus ', and Galileo 's theory of a heliocentric solar system,

2925-426: The idea of "social paradigm" in the context of social sciences. He identified the basic components of a social paradigm. Like Kuhn, Handa addressed the issue of changing paradigm; the process popularly known as " paradigm shift ". In this respect, he focused on social circumstances that precipitate such a shift and the effects of the shift on social institutions, including the institution of education. This broad shift in

2990-485: The importance of non-state actors in peace-building is the contribution of ICBL (International Campaign to Ban Landmines) to the international prohibition on the use of landmines. ICBL is a global network of NGOs that has operated in over 90 countries since 1992. Its primary goal is to make a world free of anti-personnel landmines . Their passionate advertising appealing for global cooperation drew Diana, Princess of Wales to become an ardent advocate. Together, they brought

3055-420: The international order. Their growing presence as an alternative governmental presence also holds them accountable to international law. paradigm In science and philosophy , a paradigm ( / ˈ p ær ə d aɪ m / PARR -ə-dyme ) is a distinct set of concepts or thought patterns, including theories, research methods , postulates, and standards for what constitute legitimate contributions to

3120-726: The issue to the United Nations General Assembly . ICBL's efforts led the international community to urge states to ratify the Ottawa Treaty (Mine Ban Treaty) in 1997, and its contribution was recognized and praised as it was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in the same year. Non-state actors also have a role in governance . While NSAs are incredibly useful in advancing international peace, monitoring human rights violations, and lobbying for socio-political issues like climate change, they also play

3185-533: The many ways these two sub-disciplines of psychology differ concerns meanings and intentions. In PCT, they are seen as the central concern of psychology; in radical behaviourism, they are not scientific evidence at all, as they cannot be directly observed.) Such considerations explain the conflict between the Kuhn/ Dogan view, and the views of others (including Larry Laudan, see above), who do apply these concepts to social sciences. Handa, M.L. (1986) introduced

3250-408: The media and the private sector. Also included in this definition are informal groups such as grassroots organizations , informal private sector associations, etc. The private sector, however, is considered only insofar as it is involved in non-profit activities (e.g. private sector associations, chambers of commerce, etc.) Non-state actors can aid in opinion building in international affairs, such as

3315-432: The mirror-neurons that provide a hard-wired basis for the human capacity for empathy, the scientists involved were unable to identify the incidents that had directed their attention to the issue. Over the course of the investigation, their language and metaphors had changed so that they themselves could no longer interpret all of their own earlier laboratory notes and records. However, many instances exist in which change in

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3380-414: The new paradigm reduces the old to a special case in the sense that Newtonian mechanics is still a good model for approximation for speeds that are slow compared to the speed of light . Many philosophers and historians of science, including Kuhn himself, ultimately accepted a modified version of Kuhn's model, which synthesizes his original view with the gradualist model that preceded it. Kuhn's original model

3445-443: The original Kuhnian paradigm have been invoked in various disciplines other than the philosophy of science. These include: the idea of major cultural themes, worldviews (and see below), ideologies , and mindsets . They have somewhat similar meanings that apply to smaller and larger scale examples of disciplined thought. In addition, Michel Foucault used the terms episteme and discourse , mathesis, and taxinomia, for aspects of

3510-457: The paradigm itself; this in turn leads to a build-up of unreconciled anomalies. It is the latter that is responsible for the eventual revolutionary overthrow of the incumbent paradigm, and its replacement by a new one. Kuhn used the expression paradigm shift (see below) for this process, and likened it to the perceptual change that occurs when our interpretation of an ambiguous image "flips over" from one state to another. (The rabbit-duck illusion

3575-480: The physical sciences and in historical organisations such as the Church is that the former, unlike the latter, requires technical expertise rather than repeating statements. In other words, after scientific training through what Kuhn calls ' exemplars ', one could not genuinely believe that, to take a trivial example, the earth is flat , whereas thinkers such as Giles of Rome in the thirteenth century wrote in favour of

3640-422: The pope, then could easily write similarly glowing things about the king. A writer such as Giles would have wanted a good job from the pope; he was a papal publicist. However, Harris writes that 'scientific group membership is not concerned with desire, emotions, gain, loss and any idealistic notions concerning the nature and destiny of humankind...but simply to do with aptitude, explanation, [and] cold description of

3705-434: The primarily sociological importance of paradigms, pointing towards Kuhn's second edition of The Structure of Scientific Revolutions . Although obedience to popes such as Innocent III and Boniface VIII was widespread, even written testimony from the time showing loyalty to the pope does not demonstrate that the writer had the same worldview as the Church, and therefore pope, at the centre. The difference between paradigms in

3770-498: The sciences as going through alternating periods of normal science , when an existing model of reality dominates a protracted period of puzzle-solving, and revolution , when the model of reality itself undergoes sudden drastic change. Paradigms have two aspects. Firstly, within normal science, the term refers to the set of exemplary experiments that are likely to be copied or emulated. Secondly, underpinning this set of exemplars are shared preconceptions, made prior to – and conditioning –

3835-468: The social arena, in turn, changes the way the individual perceives reality. Another use of the word paradigm is in the sense of " worldview ". For example, in social science, the term is used to describe the set of experiences, beliefs and values that affect the way an individual perceives reality and responds to that perception. Social scientists have adopted the Kuhnian phrase "paradigm shift" to denote

3900-434: The social sciences in his essay, particularly in sociology, political science and political anthropology. However, both Kuhn's original work and Dogan's commentary are directed at disciplines that are defined by conventional labels (such as "sociology"). While it is true that such broad groupings in the social sciences are usually not based on a Kuhnian paradigm, each of the competing sub-disciplines may still be underpinned by

3965-480: The social sciences. Mattei Dogan , a French sociologist, in his article "Paradigms in the Social Sciences", develops Kuhn's original thesis that there are no paradigms at all in the social sciences since the concepts are polysemic , involving the deliberate mutual ignorance between scholars and the proliferation of schools in these disciplines. Dogan provides many examples of the non-existence of paradigms in

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4030-399: The substantive topic, or some aspect of the theories implicitly used in making observations). Larry Laudan has also made two important contributions to the debate. Laudan believed that something akin to paradigms exist in the social sciences (Kuhn had contested this, see below); he referred to these as research traditions . Laudan noted that some anomalies become "dormant", if they survive

4095-576: The terrorist attacks of 9/11, the US and the UN debated whether the right of self-defense, as protected by the UN Charter 's Article 51 , was applicable to armed non-state actors, in this case Al-Qaeda . Article 51 allows member states to pursue a preemptive self-defense if they know that an imminent attack is coming. Many issues still remain on the extent to which the potential victim state could retaliate against

4160-449: The word to refer to the set of concepts and practices that define a scientific discipline at any particular period of time . In his book, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (first published in 1962), Kuhn defines a scientific paradigm as: "universally recognized scientific achievements that, for a time, provide model problems and solutions to a community of practitioners, i.e., In The Structure of Scientific Revolutions , Kuhn saw

4225-463: The work of Lavoisier on atomic theory in the late 18th century. In this change, the focus had shifted from the bulk properties of matter (such as hardness, colour, reactivity, etc.) to studies of atomic weights and quantitative studies of reactions. He suggested that it was impossible to make the comparison needed to judge which body of knowledge was better or more advanced. However, this change in research style (and paradigm) eventually (after more than

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