Misplaced Pages

#89910

64-641: Human habitation at the site dates from the Late Period of ancient Egypt , but it reached its greatest prominence in the Middle Ages , when the area was the home of the Eparch of Nobatia . Qasr Ibrim is the source of the largest collection of Old Nubian documents ever found, including the records of the Eparch. The site was occupied until 1813, when the last occupants were driven out by artillery fire. Today

128-591: A satrapy . The Persians came to dominate Egypt, but Egypt remained independent until it was made a Persian province in 485 B.C., after a revolt. The Twenty-seventh Dynasty of Egypt consists of the Persian emperors - including Cambyses, Xerxes I , and Darius the Great - who ruled Egypt as Pharaohs and governed through their satraps, as well as the Egyptian Petubastis III (522–520 BC) (and possibly

192-490: A brother of the emperor Xerxes I, and Arsames (c.454–c.406 BC). The Twenty-Eighth Dynasty consisted of a single king, Amyrtaeus , prince of Sais , who successfully rebelled against the Persians, inaugurating Egypt's last significant phase of independence under native sovereigns. He left no monuments with his name. This dynasty reigned for six years, from 404 BC–398 BC. The Twenty-Ninth Dynasty ruled from Mendes , for

256-494: A heavily sheep and goat based economy has been found, along with large numbers of juvenile cattle. These cattle remains suggest a meat- and milk-based economy. The cattle could also have been used for religious ceremonies at the Meroitic Temple. The ritually-deposited remains of a domesticated chicken were also found below a house floor, and date to the post-Meroitic period (late 5th to early 6th centuries AD). Qasr Ibrim

320-636: A new indigenous alphabet , the Meroitic , consisting of twenty-three letters, replaced Egyptian script. The Meroitic script is an alphabetic script originally derived from Egyptian hieroglyphs, used to write the Meroitic language of the Kingdom of Kush. It was developed in the Napatan Period (c. 700 – 300 BC), and first appears in the 2nd century BC. For a time, it was also possibly used to write

384-600: A power by the 1st or 2nd century AD, sapped by the war with Roman Egypt and the decline of its traditional industries. Meroë is mentioned briefly in the 1st century AD Periplus of the Erythraean Sea : 2. On the right-hand coast next below Berenice is the country of the Berbers. Along the shore are the Fish-Eaters, living in scattered caves in the narrow valleys. Farther inland are the Berbers, and beyond them

448-645: A tribune and two centurions into this country, who reached the city of Meroë where they were given an escort, then proceeded up the White Nile until they encountered the swamps of the Sudd . This marked the limit of Roman penetration into Africa. The period following Petronius' punitive expedition is marked by abundant trade finds at sites in Meroë. L. P. Kirwan provides a short list of finds from archeological sites in that country. The kingdom of Meroë began to fade as

512-545: A wide range of archaeological finds from throughout the Levant shows an Egyptian occupation and control in the late decades of the 7th century BC. These include various Egyptian objects from several sites, ostraca and documents showing a tribute/tax system, and evidence from the fortress of Mezad Hashavyahu. Egyptian influence reached to the Euphrates area in places such as Kimuhu and Quramati . Later they were pushed back by

576-529: Is known not only for its organic remains but also for the textiles that have also been found at the site. During the Roman occupation of the site, sandals, textiles, and leather fragments were left behind. Woolen fabrics are believed to have been brought to Qasr Ibrim in 23 BC by the Romans . Cotton fabrics were not introduced until the first century AD by the Meroitic peoples. The un-dyed Meroitic fabrics differ from

640-640: Is possible that the Egyptian word for gold , nub , was the source of name of Nubia . Trade in "exotic" animals from farther south in Africa was another feature of their economy. Apart from the iron trade, pottery was a widespread and prominent industry in the Meroë kingdom. The production of fine and elaborately decorated wares was a strong tradition within the middle Nile. Such productions carried considerable social significance and are believed to be involved in mortuary rites. The long history of goods imported into

704-650: The Kingdom of Kush . The Kingdom of Kush spanned the period c. 800 BC – c. 350 AD. Initially, its main capital was farther north at Napata . King Aspelta moved the capital to Meroë, considerably farther south than Napata , possibly c. 591 BC, just after the sack of Napata by Egyptian Pharaoh Psamtik II . Martin Meredith states the Kushite rulers chose Meroë, between the Fifth and Sixth Cataracts , because it

SECTION 10

#1732773160090

768-635: The Nobiin language , instead belongs to the Eastern Sudanic branch of the Nilo-Saharan family. The site of Meroë was brought to the knowledge of Europeans in 1821 by the French mineralogist Frédéric Cailliaud (1787–1869), who published an illustrated in-folio describing the ruins. His work included the first publication of the southernmost known Latin inscription. As Margoliouth notes in

832-814: The Nubian language of the successor Nubian kingdoms. It is uncertain to which language family the Meroitic language is related. Kirsty Rowan suggests that Meroitic, like the Egyptian language , belongs to the Afro-Asiatic family. She bases this on its sound inventory and phonotactics , which, she proposes, are similar to those of the Afro-Asiatic languages and dissimilar from those of the Nilo-Saharan languages. Claude Rilly, based on its syntax, morphology, and known vocabulary, proposes that Meroitic, like

896-531: The Third Intermediate Period in the 26th Saite Dynasty founded by Psamtik I , but includes the time of Achaemenid Persian rule over Egypt after the conquest by Cambyses II in 525 BC as well. The Late Period existed from 664 BC until 332 BC, following a period of foreign rule by the Nubian 25th Dynasty and beginning with a short period of Neo-Assyrian suzerainty , with Psamtik I initially ruling as their vassal. The period ended with

960-702: The "Island of Meroë", which was the modern region of Butana , a region bounded by the Nile (from the Atbarah River to Khartoum ), the Atbarah and the Blue Nile . The city of Meroë was on the edge of Butana . There were two other Meroitic cities in Butana: Musawwarat es-Sufra and Naqa . The first of these sites was given the name Meroë by the Persian king Cambyses , in honor of his sister who

1024-496: The 1911 Encyclopedia Britannica , small scale excavations occurred in 1834, led by Giuseppe Ferlini , who, as Margoliouth states, "discovered (or professed to discover) various antiquities, chiefly in the form of jewelry, now in the museums of Berlin and Munich ." Margoliouth continues, The ruins were examined in 1844 by C. R. Lepsius , who brought many plans, sketches and copies, besides actual antiquities, to Berlin. Further excavations were carried on by E. A. Wallis Budge in

1088-649: The 4th century AD. The Aksumite presence was short lived before Meroë was taken by the Kingdom of Alodia . A stele of Ge'ez of an unnamed ruler of the Kingdom of Aksum thought to be Ezana was found at the site of Meroë; from its description, in Greek , he was "King of the Aksumites and the Omerites ," (i.e. of Aksum and Himyar ) it is likely this king ruled sometime around 330. Another inscription in Greek gives

1152-491: The Amun Temple. Meroë flourished and many building projects were undertaken. The first king of the period is Arakamani (270–260 BC), the last ruler is Queen Amanitore (mid/late 1st century AD) Many artifacts were found in Meroitic tombs from around this time. Rome's conquest of Egypt led to border skirmishes and incursions by Meroë beyond the Roman borders. In 23 BC, in response to a Nubian attack on southern Egypt,

1216-431: The Meroitic empire and distribution of certain crafts and manufactures may have been politically important with their iron industry and pottery crafts gaining the most significant attention. The Meroitic settlements were oriented in a savannah orientation with the varying of permanent and less permanent agricultural settlements can be attributed to the exploitation of rainlands and savannah-oriented forms of subsistence. At

1280-461: The Meroitic empire and their subsequent distribution provides insight into the social and political workings of the Meroitic state. The major determinant of production was attributed to the availability of labor rather than the political power associated with land. Power was associated with control of people rather than control of territory. The sakia , was used to move water, in conjunction with irrigation, to increase crop production. At its peak,

1344-618: The Meroitic kingdom that allowed for the rise in power of its people. According to partially deciphered Meroitic texts, Meroitic "d" was transcribed in foreign languages as "r", with the native name of the city being Medewi . The Kings ruled over Napata and Meroë. The seat of government and the royal palace were in Meroë . The Main temple of Amun was located in Napata . Kings and many queens are buried in Nuri , some queens are buried in Meroë , in

SECTION 20

#1732773160090

1408-454: The Napatan occupation, the Roman occupation, and the Meroitic periods. Listed below are the main crops that have been identified in each phase: Napatan (mid 8th - mid 7th century BC): Roman (25 BC - mid 1st century AD): Meroitic (AD 100–300): The site has also revealed many archaeozoological remains, though they have not been as heavily studied as the botanical remains. Evidence of

1472-501: The Near East. The expedition was beginning to meet with some success and made its way to Phoenicia without particular problems. unfortunately for Teos, his brother Tjahapimu was plotting against him. Tjahapimu convinced his son Nectanebo II to rebel against Teos and to make himself pharaoh. The plan was successful and the betrayed Teos had no alternative but to flee and the expedition disintegrated. The final ruler of this dynasty, and

1536-462: The Roman governor of Egypt, Publius Petronius , invaded Nubia to end the Meroitic raids. He pillaged northern Nubia and sacked Napata (22 BC) before returning home. In retaliation, the Nubians crossed the lower border of Egypt and looted many statues from the Egyptian towns near the first cataract of the Nile at Aswan. Roman forces later reclaimed some of the statues, and others were returned following

1600-473: The West Cemetery. The earliest king was Analmaye (542–538 BC) and the last king of the first phase is Nastasen (335–315 BC) In the fifth century BC, Greek historian Herodotus described it as "a great city...said to be the mother city of the other Ethiopians." Excavations revealed evidence of important, high ranking Kushite burials from the Napatan Period (c. 800 – c. 280 BC) in the vicinity of

1664-586: The Wild-flesh-Eaters and Calf-Eaters, each tribe governed by its chief; and behind them, farther inland, in the country towards the west, there lies a city called Meroe. Kings were buried in Meroë , in the North Cemetery, and Queens in West Cemetery. In 350 AD Meroë was destroyed by Axum . The first king of the fourth period was Shorkaror (1st century AD), while the last rulers may have been King Yesebokheamani or King Talakhidamani in

1728-629: The church's crypts. The stela is now located in the British Museum. The site was partly rebuilt "under the prefecture of Gaius Petronius during Augustus' reign." Qasr Ibrim played a key role in Rome's defense of the Aswan region, and was likely held until AD 100 or later. The fortress, constructed by Roman military engineers, was the strongest in the Nile Valley at this time. During Roman times

1792-625: The city of Sais , reigned from 672 to 525 BC, and consisted of six pharaohs. It started with the unification of Egypt under Psamtik I c. 656 BC, itself a direct consequence of the Sack of Thebes by the Assyrians in 663 BC. Canal construction from the Nile to the Red Sea began. Egypt seems to have expanded into the Near East early in this period. They conquered the city of Ashdod around 655 BC, and

1856-414: The city of Meroë, which was then called Saba. The city was built near the confluence of two great rivers and was encircled by a formidable wall, and governed by a renegade king. To ensure the safety of his men who traversed that desert country, Moses had invented a stratagem whereby the Egyptian army would carry along with them baskets of sedge, each containing an ibis, only to be released when they approached

1920-727: The conquests of the Persian Empire by Alexander the Great and establishment of the Ptolemaic dynasty by his general Ptolemy I Soter , one of the Hellenistic diadochi from Macedon in northern Greece . With the Macedonian Greek conquest in the latter half of the 4th century BC, the age of Hellenistic Egypt began. The Twenty-Sixth Dynasty , also known as the Saite Dynasty after its seat of power

1984-400: The defeat at Carcemish , although Egyptian intervention in the Near East seems to have continued after this battle. Amasis II followed a new policy and directed his interests toward the Greek world. He annexed Cyprus during his reign. To the south, Psamtik II led a great military expedition that reached deep into upper Nubia and inflicted a heavy defeat on them. A demotic papyrus from

Qasr Ibrim - Misplaced Pages Continue

2048-592: The disputed Psammetichus IV ), who rebelled in defiance of the Persian authorities. The unsuccessful revolt of Inaros II (460–454), aided by the Athenians as part of the Wars of the Delian League , aspired to the same object. The Persian satraps were Aryandes (525–522 BC; 518–c.496 BC) - whose rule was interrupted by the rebel Pharaoh Petubastis III, Pherendates (c.496–c.486 BC), Achaemenes (c.486–459 BC) -

2112-531: The earliest churches in Nubia, it would have been constructed within the walls of the already present temples. Qasr Ibrim's cathedral was built later, though the date of construction in unclear. Archaeologists currently believe it was constructed in the first half of the eighth century. The last known Nubian bishop of Faras , Timothy , actually resided at Qasr Ibrim. He was buried in the cathedral there (c. 1375) and two scrolls were discovered in his tomb. The site

2176-429: The enemy's country. The purpose of the birds was to kill the deadly serpents that lay all about that country. Having successfully laid siege to the city, the city was eventually subdued by the betrayal of the king's daughter, who had agreed to deliver the city to Moses on condition that he would consummate a marriage with her, under the solemn assurance of an oath. Meroë was the base of a flourishing kingdom whose wealth

2240-458: The exercise of state power over subsistence production. The Kingdom of Kush which housed the city of Meroë represents one of a series of early states located within the middle Nile. It was one of the earliest and most advanced states found on the African continent. Looking at the specificity of the surrounding early states within the middle Nile, one's understanding of Meroë in combination with

2304-602: The fifteenth century when the Makurian kingdom became Islamic. The city held out against Islam until the 16th century, when a unit of Bosnian soldiers, part of the Ottoman army, occupied the site. The Bosnian soldiers stayed on and eventually married into the local Nubian community, using part of the cathedral as a mosque. Two churches remain on the site. The Taharqa Church was most likely built between 542 and 580, which would make it one of Nubia's earliest churches. Like many of

2368-598: The final native ruler of Egypt, was Nectanebo II who was defeated in battle leading to the re-annexation by the Achaemenid Empire . The Second Achaemenid Period saw the re-inclusion of Egypt as a satrapy of the Persian Empire under the rule of the Thirty-First Dynasty, (343–332 BC) which consisted of three Persian emperors who ruled as Pharaoh— Artaxerxes III (343–338 BC), Artaxerxes IV (338–336 BC), and Darius III (336–332 BC)—interrupted by

2432-399: The historical developments of other historic states may be enhanced through looking at the development of power relation characteristics within other Nile Valley states. The site of the city of Meroë is marked by more than two hundred pyramids in three groups, of which many are in ruins. They have the distinctive size and proportions of Nubian pyramids . Meroë was the southern capital of

2496-531: The island is closed to all but archaeologists. Egypt's influence in Nubia began around 2,000 BC, when Egyptian invaded and claimed sovereignty over the area. Many Egyptian artifacts and evidence of Egyptian architecture have been found at Qasr Ibrim. The earliest inscription at the site is a stela , a stone or wooden slab, from the reign of Amenhotep I . The stela was found in a now-ruined Christian Byzantine cathedral at Qasr Ibrim where it had been reused in one of

2560-472: The peace treaty signed in 22 BC between Rome and Meroë under Augustus and Amanirenas , respectively. One looted head , from a statue of the emperor Augustus , was buried under the steps of a temple in Meroë; it is now kept in the British Museum . The next recorded contact between Rome and Meroë was in the autumn of 61 AD. The Emperor Nero sent a party of Praetorian soldiers under the command of

2624-420: The people of Meroë also had southern deities such as Apedemak , the lion-son of Sekhmet (or Bast , depending upon the region), they also continued worshipping ancient Egyptian gods that they had brought with them. Among these deities were Amun , Tefnut , Horus , Isis , Thoth and Satis , though to a lesser extent. The collapse of their external trade with other Nile Valley states may be considered one of

Qasr Ibrim - Misplaced Pages Continue

2688-559: The period from 398 to 380 BC. King Hakor of this dynasty was able to defeat a Persian invasion during his reign. The Thirtieth Dynasty took their art style from the Twenty-Sixth Dynasty . A series of three pharaohs ruled from 380 to 343 BC. The first king of the dynasty, Nectanebo I , defeated a Persian invasion in 373 BC. His successor Teos subsequently led an expedition against the Achaemenid Empire in

2752-509: The prime causes of the decline of royal power and disintegration of the Meroitic state in the 3rd and 4th centuries AD. The Meroitic language was spoken in Meroë and the Sudan during the Meroitic period (attested from 300 BC). It became extinct around 400 AD. The language was written in two forms of the Meroitic alphabet : Meroitic Cursive, which was written with a stylus and was used for general record-keeping; and Meroitic Hieroglyphic, which

2816-767: The regnal claims of Ezana : I, Ezana , King of the Axumites and Himyarites and of Reeidan and of the Sabaites and of Sileel (?) and of Hasa and of the Bougaites and of Taimo... While some authorities interpret these inscriptions as proof that the Axumites destroyed the Kingdom of Kush, others note that archeological evidence points to an economic and political decline in Meroë around 300. Jewish oral tradition avers that Moses , in his younger years, had led an Egyptian military expedition into Sudan (Kush), as far as

2880-645: The reign of Ahmose II describes a small expedition into Nubia, the character of which is unclear. There is archaeological evidence of an Egyptian garrison at Dorginarti in lower Nubia during the Saite period. One major contribution from the Late Period of ancient Egypt was the Brooklyn Papyrus . This was a medical papyrus with a collection of medical and magical remedies for victims of snakebites based on snake type or symptoms. Artwork during this time

2944-504: The reliefs on the chapel walls, already described by Lepsius, and containing the names with representations of queens and some kings, with some chapters of the Book of the Dead ; some steles with inscriptions in the Meroitic language, and some vessels of metal and earthenware. The best of the reliefs were taken down stone by stone in 1905, and set up partly in the British Museum and partly in

3008-724: The revolt of the non-Achaemenid Khababash (338–335 BC). Persian rule in Egypt ended with the defeat of the Achaemenid Empire by Alexander the Great , who accepted the surrender of the Persian satrap of Egypt Mazaces in 332 BC, marking the beginning of Hellenistic rule in Egypt which stabilized after Alexander's death into the Ptolemaic Kingdom . Mero%C3%AB Meroë ( / ˈ m ɛr oʊ iː / ; also spelled Meroe ; Meroitic : Medewi ; Arabic : مرواه , romanized :  Meruwah and مروي , Meruwi ; Ancient Greek : Μερόη , romanized :  Meróē )

3072-486: The river, were destroyed in floods caused by the Aswan Dam. The almost rainless conditions of the area have created excellent preservation of organic materials. Pottery dated to the post-Meroitic period (AD 350–600) shows evidence of both date palm and doum palm residues. Various samples of sorghum dating from between 800 BC to AD 1800 have also been found at Qasr Ibrim. There are four forms of sorghum that are found on

3136-530: The royal palace are in Meroë. Kings and many queens are buried in Meroë , in the South Cemetery. Napata remained relevant for the Amun Temple. The first King of the period was Aktisanes (Early 3rd century BC) and the last king of the period was Sabrakamani (first half 3rd century BC). The seat of government and the royal palace are in Meroë . Kings are buried in Meroë , in the North Cemetery, and Queens in West Cemetery. Napata remained relevant for

3200-488: The rulers of Meroë controlled the Nile Valley north to south, over a straight-line distance of more than 1,000 km (620 mi). The King of Meroë was an autocratic ruler who shared his authority only with the Queen Mother, or Candace . However, the role of the Queen Mother remains obscure. The administration consisted of treasurers , seal bearers, heads of archives and chief scribes , among others. Although

3264-679: The settlement called the Western Cemetery. The importance of the town gradually increased from the beginning of the Meroitic Period , especially from the reign of Arakamani (c. 280 BC) when the royal burial ground was transferred to Meroë from Napata ( Gebel Barkal ). Royal burials formed the Pyramids of Meroë , containing the remains of the Kings and Queens of Meroë from c. 300 BC to about 350 AD. The seat of government and

SECTION 50

#1732773160090

3328-453: The site. From when the site was settled until around AD 100 only wild sorghum can be found. From AD 100 until around 1500 an early form of cultivated sorghum ( Sorghum bicolor , ssp. bicolor , race Bicolor) is found. Around 1200 an advanced form of sorghum ( Sorghum bicolor , ssp. bicolor , race Durra) appears. Between the 5th and 7th centuries a transitional race is also present. There are believed to be three phases of agricultural history,

3392-418: The time, iron was one of the most important metals worldwide, and Meroitic metalworkers were among the best in the world. Meroë traded ivory, slaves, rare skins, ostrich feathers, copper, and ebony. Meroë also exported textiles and jewelry . Their textiles were based on cotton and working on this product reached its highest achievement in Nubia around 400 BC. Furthermore, Nubia was very rich in gold . It

3456-453: The town was one of the last bastions of paganism, its six temples converting to Christianity two centuries later than the rest of Egypt. It then became one of the main Christian centers in Lower Nubia. Christianity first came to Qasr Ibrim in the 6th century, but had little effect. It wasn't until the city became part of the kingdom of Makuria , in the early 8th century, that Qasr Ibrim became a center for Christianity. This continued even through

3520-411: The wool of the Romans, which has been found in blues and other bright colors. The conditions at Qasr Ibrim have also preserved a large number of documents in nine different languages or scripts. This includes hieroglyphics, Demotic, Meroitic, Greek, Latin, Coptic, Old Nubian, Arabic, and Turkish. Earlier documents were written on papyrus, though parchment was the preferred material for sacred texts. Paper

3584-462: The years 1902 and 1905, the results of which are recorded in his work, The Egyptian Sudan: its History and Monuments … Troops were furnished by Sir Reginald Wingate , governor of the Sudan, who made paths to and between the pyramids, and sank shafts, &c. It was found that the pyramids were regularly built over sepulchral chambers, containing the remains of bodies either burned or buried without being mummified. The most interesting objects found were

3648-444: Was an ancient city on the east bank of the Nile about 6 km north-east of the Kabushiya station near Shendi , Sudan , approximately 200 km north-east of Khartoum . Near the site is a group of villages called Bagrawiyah ( Arabic : البجراوية ). This city was the capital of the Kingdom of Kush for several centuries from around 590 BC, until its collapse in the 4th century AD. The Kushitic Kingdom of Meroë gave its name to

3712-443: Was called by that name. The city had originally borne the ancient appellation Saba , named after the country's original founder. The eponym Saba , or Seba , is named for one of the sons of Cush (see Genesis 10:7). The presence of numerous Meroitic sites within the western Butana region and on the border of Butana proper is significant to the settlement of the core of the developed region. The orientation of these settlements exhibit

3776-418: Was carved in stone or used for royal or religious documents. It is not well understood due to the scarcity of bilingual texts. The earliest inscription in Meroitic writing dates from between 180 and 170 BC. These hieroglyphics were found engraved on the temple of Queen Shanakdakhete . Meroitic Cursive is written horizontally, and reads from right to left like all Semitic orthographies. By the 3rd century BC,

3840-400: Was centered around a strong iron industry. Metalworking is believed to have taken place in Meroë, possibly through bloomeries and blast furnaces . Archibald Sayce reportedly referred to it as "the Birmingham of Africa", because of perceived vast production and trade of iron (a contention that is a matter of debate in modern scholarship). The centralized control of production within

3904-476: Was first excavated by David Randall-MacIver and C. Leonard Woolley for the Eckley B. Coxe Expedition for the University of Pennsylvania in 1911. In 1963, excavations were started by the Egyptian Exploration Society and have continued periodically to the present day. Cemeteries found east and west of the main settlement were excavated in 1932 and 1961. There are still areas around the complex that have yet to be excavated, although some sites, including those near

SECTION 60

#1732773160090

3968-404: Was not common writing material in Nubia until the twelfth century. A variety of texts were found, including personal letters and religious documents. These documents show the significance of Qasr Ibrim as a frontier society, and the center of a vast trade network. Late Period of ancient Egypt The Late Period of ancient Egypt refers to the last flowering of native Egyptian rulers after

4032-448: Was on the fringe of the summer rainfall belt, and the area was rich in iron ore and hardwood for iron working . The location also afforded access to trade routes to the Red Sea . The city of Meroë was located along the middle Nile which is of much importance due to the annual flooding of the Nile river valley and the connection to many major river systems such as the Niger which aided with the production of pottery and iron characteristic to

4096-458: Was representative of animal cults and animal mummies. This image shows the god Pataikos wearing a scarab beetle on his head, supporting two human-headed birds on his shoulders, holding a snake in each hand, and standing atop crocodiles. The First Achaemenid Period (525–404 BC) began with the Battle of Pelusium , which saw Egypt ( Old Persian : 𐎸𐎭𐎼𐎠𐎹 Mudrāya ) conquered by the expansive Achaemenid Empire under Cambyses , and Egypt become

#89910