The Robinson R22 is a two-seat, two-bladed, single-engined, light utility helicopter manufactured by Robinson Helicopter Company . It was designed in 1973 by Frank D. Robinson , and has been in production since 1979.
108-584: The majority of flight testing was performed at Zamperini Field in Torrance, California . Flight testing and certification were performed in the late 1970s by test pilot Joseph John "Tym" Tymczyszyn , and the R22 received FAA certification in March 1979. Due to relatively low acquisition and operating costs, the R22 has been popular as a primary rotorcraft trainer around the world, entry-level personal helicopter, and as
216-505: A fantail ), and MD Helicopters ' NOTAR . The number of rotors is also important, many helicopters have two rotors in a single line, and another configuration is 4 rotors. An example of two-blade rotor is the Bell 212 , and four blade version of this helicopter is the Bell 412 . An example of the effect of rotor blade number is the UH-72 ( EC145 variant ); the A model had four blades, but
324-424: A belt tension actuator. During shutdown, the actuator is used to lower the upper sheave to loosen the drive belts. For startup, the engine is started with the belts loose, allowing the engine to run without spinning the rotor system. Immediately after engine start, the clutch switch located in the cockpit is closed by the pilot, powering the actuator to slowly raise the upper sheave to flight position, which tightens
432-401: A combination of these classifications. A rotor is a finely tuned rotating mass, and different subtle adjustments reduce vibrations at different airspeeds. The rotors are designed to operate at a fixed RPM (within a narrow range of a few percent), but a few experimental aircraft used variable speed rotors . Unlike the small diameter fans used in turbofan jet engines, the main rotor on
540-409: A common flapping or teetering hinge at the rotor shaft. This allows the blades to flap together in opposite motions like a seesaw . This underslinging of the blades below the teetering hinge, combined with an adequate dihedral or coning angle on the blades, minimizes variations in the radius of each blade's center of mass from the axis of rotation as the rotor turns, which in turn reduces the stress on
648-468: A conventional design the rotor blades' angle of attack is reduced via a collective pitch control. Slowing the rotor instead can reduce drag during this phase of flight and thus improve fuel economy. Most helicopters have a single main rotor but require a separate rotor to overcome torque. This is accomplished through a variable-pitch antitorque rotor or tail rotor. This is the design that Igor Sikorsky settled on for his VS-300 helicopter, and it has become
756-500: A degree of washout that reduces the lift generated at the tips, where the airflow is fastest and vortex generation would be a significant problem. Rotor blades are made out of various materials, including aluminium, composite structure, and steel or titanium , with abrasion shields along the leading edge. Rotorcraft blades are traditionally passive; however, some helicopters include active components on their blades. The Kaman K-MAX uses trailing edge flaps for blade pitch control and
864-447: A direction opposite that of the main rotor's rotation, thereby countering the torque effect created by the main rotor. Tail rotors are simpler than main rotors since they require only collective changes in pitch to vary thrust. The pitch of the tail rotor blades is adjustable by the pilot via the anti-torque pedals, which also provide directional control by allowing the pilot to rotate the helicopter around its vertical axis, thereby changing
972-502: A ducted fan can have a smaller size than a conventional tail rotor. The Fenestron was used for the first time at the end of the 1960s on the second experimental model of Sud Aviation's SA 340 and produced on the later model Aérospatiale SA 341 Gazelle . Besides Eurocopter and its predecessors, a ducted fan tail rotor was also used on the canceled military helicopter project, the United States Army 's RAH-66 Comanche , as
1080-421: A field of pop-up and known threats; flying low-level, terrain-hugging profiles to avoid detection; and determining safe landing zones using vision-based algorithms to process landing site imagery and terrain height information." The R22 is operated by many private individuals, companies, and flying clubs. In Australia, where 489 R22s were registered as of mid-2011, a survey found that 62% of the fleet's flying time
1188-593: A flexible hub, which allows for blade bending (flexing) without the need for bearings or hinges. These systems, called flexures , are usually constructed from composite material. Elastomeric bearings may also be used in place of conventional roller bearings . Elastomeric bearings are constructed from a rubber type material and provide limited movement that is perfectly suited for helicopter applications. Flexures and elastomeric bearings require no lubrication and, therefore, require less maintenance. They also absorb vibration, which means less fatigue and longer service life for
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#17327723825161296-402: A helicopter has a large diameter that lets it accelerate a large volume of air. This permits a lower downwash velocity for a given amount of thrust. As it is more efficient at low speeds to accelerate a large amount of air by a small degree than a small amount of air by a large degree, a low disk loading (thrust per disc area) greatly increases the aircraft's energy efficiency, and this reduces
1404-409: A helicopter. Twin rotors turn in opposite directions to counteract the torque effect on the aircraft without relying on an antitorque tail rotor. This lets the aircraft apply the power that would have driven a tail rotor to the main rotors, increasing lifting capacity. Primarily, three common configurations use the counterrotating effect on rotorcraft. Tandem rotors are two rotors—one mounted behind
1512-554: A livestock-management tool on large ranches in North America and cattle stations in Australia . The R22 has a very low- inertia rotor system and the control inputs are operated directly by push rods with no hydraulic assistance. Thus, its flight controls are very sensitive and require a light touch to avoid overcorrection, and students who master an R22 are usually well prepared to transition to heavier helicopters. Due to
1620-442: A low 11 °C (20 °F) difference between the outside air temperature and dew point (the "dew point spread"), as well as visible signs of moisture in the atmosphere. Icing can lead to loss of engine power, and if not corrected, total shutdown of the engine. A carburetor heat control is used to supply heated air to the carburetor; this can prevent or cure icing, but also causes a reduction in engine power output because hot air
1728-417: A minimum. This stability is achieved by keeping the center of pressure virtually unchanged as the angle of attack changes. Center of pressure is the imaginary point on the chord line where the resultant of all aerodynamic forces are considered to be concentrated. Today, designers use thinner airfoils and obtain the required rigidity by using composite materials. Some airfoils are asymmetrical in design, meaning
1836-421: A modified pallet jack. The other option for ground handling is a landing platform which is large enough for the helicopter to safely land on, has wheels underneath and can be towed between the hangar and the take-off location. These are heavy and must be towed with a vehicle. R22’s are light enough to move they are rarely loaded onto platforms. The two-bladed rotor and the small size of the R22 make transporting
1944-491: A pilot and passenger. The doors may be removed for flight, as is often done for photographic flights, interior cooling in high temperatures, or a 10.4 lb weight saving. The first version was produced as the R22, followed by the R22 HP, R22 Alpha, R22 Beta, and R22 Beta II. Superficially, the aircraft appear similar. The R22 HP was fitted with a 160 bhp Lycoming O-320-B2C engine, an increase of 10 bhp (7.5 kW) over
2052-425: A pivot pin which is inserted into the skid-mounted bracket and then rotated over center to lift the rear of the skids about 2 inches leaving the front of the skids on the ground. The helicopter can be moved by pulling down on the tail to lift the front of the skids off the ground. One person can move the helicopter though this is difficult over any distance or on a sloped surface. Another person can help by pushing on
2160-818: A remotely piloted R22, the Maverick. This aircraft, along with the company, was later acquired by Boeing Phantom Works . In 2003, the United States Navy purchased four aircraft, equipped with Wescam electro-optical/infrared systems. Boeing then modified one of the Mavericks further, calling it the Renegade, under contract with the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency as a research testbed to develop software for its A160 Hummingbird . The software system, known as
2268-498: A simple rotor: Juan de la Cierva developed the fully articulating rotor for the autogyro . The basis of his design permitted successful helicopter development. In a fully articulated rotor system, each rotor blade is attached to the rotor hub through a series of hinges that let the blade move independently of the others. These rotor systems usually have three or more blades. The blades are allowed to flap, feather, and lead or lag independently of each other. The horizontal hinge, called
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#17327723825162376-474: A tandem configuration. An advantage of quad rotors on small aircraft such as drones is the opportunity for mechanical simplicity. A quadcopter using electric motors and fixed-pitch rotors has only four moving parts. Pitch, yaw and roll can be controlled by changing the relative lift of different rotor pairs without changing total lift. The two families of airfoils are Symmetrical blades are very stable, which helps keep blade twisting and flight control loads to
2484-551: A total of 1,230 incidents. In late 1981, the R22 had its type certificate temporarily revoked by the Federal Aviation Administration due to delamination of a main rotor blade. The cause of the delamination was determined to be contamination of one of the bonded parts during a priming operation performed at an outside vendor. In response, Robinson Helicopter Company instituted stringent quality procedures and requirements, and replaced all main rotor blades on
2592-536: A two-bladed tail rotor. The main rotor has a teetering hinge and two coning hinges. The tail rotor has only a teetering hinge. The normal production variant has skid landing gear. The Mariner version, no longer manufactured, provided floats. Wheeled gear is not available. The basic structure is welded chromoly steel tubing. The forward fuselage is made of fiberglass and aluminum with a Plexiglas canopy. The tailcone and vertical and horizontal stabilizers are aluminum. It has an enclosed cabin with side-by-side seating for
2700-425: Is 65 kn (120 km/h) and the glide ratio is approximately 4:1 in maximum-glide configuration. R22’s are equipped with wheel mounts toward the rear of the skids, one on each side, for attachment of removable wheels. The wheels must be removed prior to flight. These brackets are slightly behind the helicopter center of gravity so when the wheels are installed, the helicopter sits nose low. The wheel assembly has
2808-413: Is US$ 189.87/hr when flown 500 hours per year. Depreciation on a Robinson R22 is negligible, as freshly overhauled R22s typically sell for more than the original cost. However, a provision per flown hour must be made for a "reserve for overhaul" cost, currently estimated at US$ 90.42 per hour. The R22 is a light, two-place, single reciprocating-engined helicopter, with a semirigid, two-bladed main rotor and
2916-575: Is a public airport three miles (5 km) southwest of downtown Torrance , in Los Angeles County , California , United States. The airport is classified by the FAA as a Regional Reliever and was once known as Torrance Municipal Airport ; it was renamed for local sports and war hero Louis Zamperini on December 7, 1946, the fifth anniversary of the Pearl Harbor attack. The airport
3024-512: Is an increased mechanical complexity of the rotor system because it requires linkages and swashplates for two rotor systems. Also, because the rotors must rotate in opposite directions, the mast is more complex, and control linkages for pitch changes to the upper rotor system must pass through the lower rotor system. An example of coaxial design in a compound helicopter was the Sikorsky Skyraider X , which also had pusher prop at
3132-456: Is built into the center of the upper sheave to allow the rotor system to continue to rotate in the event of engine failure, allowing the R22 to enter autorotation and land in a controlled manner. Because the main rotor has very little mass and inertia, autorotation in an R22 requires careful and proper execution to assure a successful outcome. Much time is spent in training practicing various types of autorotation. Target speed in an autorotation
3240-417: Is derated, or operated at less than maximum power, which has been attributed to the company wishing for the power unit to maintain the same performance at sea level as it does at altitude. As the air becomes thinner with increasing altitude, maximum available horsepower decreases, reaching a point where the throttle can be completely open and rotor speed is controlled by collective lever position. By derating
3348-500: Is driven by—the transmission. At the top of the mast is the attachment point (colloquially called a Jesus nut ) for the rotor blades called the hub. The rotor blades are then attached to the hub, and the hub can have 10-20 times the drag of the blade. Main rotor systems are classified according to how the main rotor blades are attached and move relative to the main rotor hub. There are three basic classifications: rigid, semirigid, and fully articulated, although some modern rotor systems use
Robinson R22 - Misplaced Pages Continue
3456-426: Is less dense, enriching the fuel-air mixture. The carburetor heat control is a simple plunger-type control mounted on the center console near the collective pitch control lever. Pulling the control up slides a gate valve near the carburetor that admits warm air from a scoop on the exhaust system. The R22 employs a carburetor air temperature gauge, marked to indicate temperatures conducive to icing. The Beta II version of
3564-465: Is located on the CAT indicator and in the pilot's operating handbook. Power is transmitted from the engine to the drive system through drive belts . Originally, the R22 used four separate v-belts running on multigroove sheaves. This system proved problematic, as individual belts sometimes rolled over in their groove and fail. As a temporary measure, in 1982, R22 operators received a kit from Robinson that
3672-470: Is simple and eliminates torque reaction, prototypes that have been built are less fuel efficient than conventional helicopters. Except for tip jets driven by unburnt compressed air, very high noise levels is the single most important reason why tip jet powered rotors have not gained wide acceptance. However, research into noise suppression is ongoing and may help make this system viable. There are several examples of tip jet powered rotorcraft. The Percival P.74
3780-452: Is that the center of pressure changes with changes in angle of attack. When the center of pressure lifting force is behind the pivot point on a rotor blade, it tends to cause the rotor disc to pitch up. As the angle of attack increases, the center of pressure moves forward. If it moves ahead of the pivot point, the pitch of the rotor disc decreases. Since the angle of attack of the rotor blades is constantly changing during each cycle of rotation,
3888-483: Is the most common tandem rotor helicopter. Coaxial rotors are a pair of rotors mounted one above the other on the same shaft and turning in opposite directions. The advantage of the coaxial rotor is that, in forward flight, the lift provided by the advancing halves of each rotor compensates for the retreating half of the other, eliminating one of the key effects of dissymmetry of lift: retreating blade stall . However, other design considerations plague coaxial rotors. There
3996-681: The Focke-Achgelis Fa 223 , as well as the world's largest helicopter ever built, the Mil Mi-12 . It is also the configuration found on tiltrotors such as the Bell-Boeing V-22 Osprey and the AgustaWestland AW609 . A quad rotor or quadrotor comprises four rotors in an "X" configuration. Rotors to the left and right are in a transverse configuration while those in the front and to the rear are in
4104-636: The Hiller YH-32 Hornet was powered by ramjets mounted on the blade ends. As of 2010 , research into active blade control through trailing edge flaps is underway. Tips of some helicopter blades can be specially designed to reduce turbulence and noise and to provide more efficient flying. An example of such tips are the tips of the BERP rotors created during the British Experimental Rotor Programme. Description of
4212-470: The OH-58D Kiowa Warrior . This system is similar to the fully articulated type in that each blade has the ability to lead/lag and hunt independently of the other blades. The difference between a fully articulated system and soft-in-plane system is that the soft-in-plane system utilises a composite yoke. This yoke is attached to the mast and runs through the blade grips between the blades and
4320-498: The flapping hinge , allows the blade to move up and down. This movement is called flapping and is designed to compensate for dissymmetry of lift . The flapping hinge may be located at varying distances from the rotor hub, and there may be more than one hinge. The vertical hinge, called the lead-lag hinge or drag hinge , allows the blade to move back and forth. This movement is called lead-lag, dragging, or hunting. Dampers are usually used to prevent excess back and forth movement around
4428-568: The FANTAIL. NOTAR, an acronym for no ta il r otor , is a helicopter anti-torque system that eliminates the use of the tail rotor on a helicopter. Although the concept took some time to refine, the NOTAR system is simple in theory and provides antitorque the same way a wing develops lift by using the Coandă effect . A variable pitch fan is enclosed in the aft fuselage section immediately forward of
Robinson R22 - Misplaced Pages Continue
4536-629: The R22 also includes a "carburetor heat assist", which automatically applies carburetor heat when the collective lever is lowered below a certain point. When icing conditions are present, carburetor heat is required to prevent icing around the butterfly valve from the pressure drop at that point. As the carburetor air temperature (CAT) indicator does not read correctly below 18 in Hg (457 mm Hg) of intake manifold air pressure, icing conditions require applying full carburetor heat below 18 in Hg of manifold pressure. A placard indicating this requirement
4644-521: The U.S. and radio-control aeromodeler Dieter Schlüter in Germany, found that flight stability for helicopters could be achieved with a stabilizer bar, or flybar. The flybar has a weight or paddle (or both for added stability on smaller helicopters) at each end to maintain a constant plane of rotation. Through mechanical linkages, the stable rotation of the bar mixes with the swashplate movement to damp internal (steering) as well as external (wind) forces on
4752-554: The UH-72B was changed to five blades which reduced vibration. Other blade numbers are possible, for example, the CH-53K , a large military transport helicopter has a seven blade main rotor. The tail rotor is a smaller rotor mounted so that it rotates vertically or near-vertically at the end of the tail of a traditional single-rotor helicopter. The tail rotor's position and distance from the center of gravity allow it to develop thrust in
4860-511: The United States. Examples of hazards faced by Helicopters, includes ones common to aircraft such as bird-strikes , but also a number of others depending on the design of the helicopter and conditions. This includes but its not limited to: Dynamic rollover , Ground resonance , Loss of tail-rotor effectiveness , Retreating blade stall , Dynamic stall , Vortex ring state , Servo transparency , Mast bumping, and Tailstrike . Because
4968-424: The advantage of easy reconfiguration and fewer mechanical parts. Most helicopter rotors spin at constant speed. However slowing the rotor in some situations can bring benefits. As forward speed increases, the advancing rotor tip speed soon approaches the speed of sound . To reduce the problem, the speed of rotation may be slowed, allowing the helicopter to fly faster. To adjust the rotor lift at slower speeds, in
5076-426: The amount of airflow from the rotorwash. This is augmented by a direct jet thruster which also provides directional yaw control, with the presence of a fixed-surface empennage near the end of the tail, incorporating vertical stabilizers. Development of the NOTAR system dates back to 1975 when engineers at Hughes Helicopters began concept development work. In December 1981, Hughes flew an OH-6A fitted with NOTAR for
5184-416: The ball then pushes down on the handle to lift the nose. Others provide a repurposed car-style hydraulic jack to lift the nose. Others provide an electric jack. Tow carts are available with no motive power, a gas engine or one or two electric motors operated from one or two batteries. Some of the non-powered tow carts are set up to be towed such as behind a golf cart or quad cycle. One manufacturer offered
5292-450: The bar, left collective control, and left tail-rotor pedals can be removed if the left-seat occupant is not going to fly such as a non-rated pilot. A floor-mounted, foot-activated push-to-talk switch facilitates intercom communications for the left-seat occupant, although some later models may be equipped with a voice-activated intercom system. The helicopter rotor system consists of a two-bladed main rotor and two-bladed antitorque rotor on
5400-403: The belts. The actuator is thereafter controlled by pressure-sensing column springs, automatically maintaining proper belt tension during flight as the belts wear and stretch. The shaft on which the upper sheave is mounted drives both the main and tail rotors; the main gear box delivers power to the main rotor shaft through a set of splash-lubricated spiral bevel gears . A one-way sprag clutch
5508-467: The blades from lead and lag forces caused by the Coriolis effect . Secondary flapping hinges may also be used to provide sufficient flexibility to minimize bouncing. Feathering is accomplished by the feathering hinge at the blade root, which allows changes to the pitch angle of the blade. Modern rotor systems may use the combined principles of the rotor systems mentioned above. Some rotor hubs incorporate
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#17327723825165616-460: The blades tend to flap, feather, lead, and lag to a greater degree. Hexacopter is a popular configuration for unmanned drone helicopters, and ways to manage and improve the control of multirotor drones has been studied. The octocopter configuration is used notably in NASA's planned Dragonfly probe , designed to fly in the atmosphere of Saturn 's Moon Titan . A manned multirotor helicopter that
5724-451: The blades themselves compensate for the forces that previously required rugged hinges. The result is a rotor system that has less lag in control response because of the large hub moment typically generated. The rigid rotor system thus eliminates the danger of mast bumping inherent in semirigid rotors. The semirigid rotor can also be referred to as a teetering or seesaw rotor. This system is normally composed of two blades that meet just under
5832-460: The bracing behind the engine. R22’s with flotation attached to the skids such as the Mariner or Mariner II must have wheels installed under the skids as the bracket is not accessible. R22’s manufactured after 1991 include a ¾” diameter tow ball mounted on the bottom of the fuselage, near the front and offset slightly to the left. A tow cart or tug can be engaged with the ball and then used to lift
5940-400: The cabin and reduces chances for injury in the event of a hard landing. The teetering bar has a hand grip on both sides that hangs down between the pilots' legs. Thus, if teetered to the right, the right-side pilot would be flying and the left grip would be about 12 inches above the left pilot's lap. R22 flight instructors quickly learn how to fly with their hand in the air. The left part of
6048-439: The combination of several rotary wings ( rotor blades ) with a control system, that generates the aerodynamic lift force that supports the weight of the helicopter, and the thrust that counteracts aerodynamic drag in forward flight. Each main rotor is mounted on a vertical mast over the top of the helicopter, as opposed to a helicopter tail rotor , which connects through a combination of drive shaft (s) and gearboxes along
6156-994: The course. On April 11, 2024 a Robinson R22 helicopter of the Philippine Navy crashed near a public market in Cavite City in the Philippines while on a training flight, killing its two pilots. It was the last R22 model helicopter in the inventory of the Philippine Navy. (These specifications are for the original R22, which is no longer in production. Later variants have different specifications.) Data from Robinson R22 Pilot's Operating Handbook., R22 Introduction and Specifications General characteristics Performance Related development Aircraft of comparable role, configuration, and era Related lists Zamperini Field Zamperini Field ( IATA : TOA , ICAO : KTOA , FAA LID : TOA )
6264-468: The designs has not fully settled, with eVTOL being a popular name, also manned drone, or even flying car being used, or in certain cases Air Taxi. As an aircraft, the FAA has worked to refine the regulations surrounding eVTOL designs, which is oriented towards traditional Helicopters and airplanes, but in 2024 finalized airworthiness criteria as it resolves how to classify and certify these types of aircraft in
6372-423: The direction the craft is pointed. Fenestron and FANTAIL are trademarks for a ducted fan mounted at the end of the tail boom of the helicopter and used in place of a tail rotor. Ducted fans have between eight and eighteen blades arranged with irregular spacing so that the noise is distributed over different frequencies. The housing is integral with the aircraft skin and allows a high rotational speed; therefore,
6480-412: The drag hinge. The purpose of the drag hinge and dampers is to compensate for acceleration and deceleration caused by the difference in drag experienced by the advancing and retreating blades. Later models have switched from using traditional bearings to elastomeric bearings. Elastomeric bearings are naturally fail-safe and their wear is gradual and visible. The metal-to-metal contact of older bearings and
6588-466: The end of wings or outriggers perpendicular to the body of the aircraft. Similar to tandem rotors and intermeshing rotors, the transverse rotor also uses differential collective pitch. But like the intermeshing rotors, the transverse rotors use the concept for changes in the roll attitude of the rotorcraft. This configuration is found on two of the first viable helicopters, the Focke-Wulf Fw 61 and
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#17327723825166696-409: The engine at sea level, the R22 achieves acceptable high-altitude performance without use of supercharging or turbocharging , thus saving the weight, cost, complexity, unreliability, and shortened engine life of a forced induction system. A carburetor is used to provide the air-fuel mixture. Carbureted engines are susceptible to carburetor icing, a condition most likely to occur in conditions of
6804-443: The engine speed governor standard and included a carburetor heat assist, which correlates adding carburetor heat with a decrease in collective control. Only the basic skid style is currently being sold. Instead of floor-mounted cyclic sticks between the pilot's knees, the R22 uses a unique teetering "T-Bar" control connected to a stick that emerges from the console between the seats. This makes it easier for occupants to enter and exit
6912-429: The engine turns the rotor creates a torque effect that causes the body of the helicopter to turn in the opposite direction of the rotor. To eliminate this effect, some sort of antitorque control must be used with a sufficient margin of power available to allow the helicopter to maintain its heading and provide yaw control. The three most common controls used today are the tail rotor, Eurocopter's Fenestron (also called
7020-436: The first rigid rotors, which was tested and developed on a series of helicopters in the 1960s and 1970s. In a rigid rotor system, each blade flaps and drags about flexible sections of the root. A rigid rotor system is mechanically simpler than a fully articulated rotor system. The aerodynamic and mechanical loads from flapping and lead/lag forces are accommodated through rotor blades flexing, rather than through hinges. By flexing,
7128-434: The first time. A more heavily modified prototype demonstrator first flew in March 1986 and successfully completed an advanced flight-test program, validating the system for future application in helicopter design. There are currently three production helicopters that incorporate the NOTAR design, all produced by MD Helicopters. This antitorque design also improves safety by eliminating the possibility of personnel walking into
7236-506: The fleet of 33 helicopters in service at the time. In the early 1980s, the R22 experienced a number of student-pilot related accidents due to the R22's use as a primary flight trainer. Believing the number of accidents was the result of insufficient training and lax standards, Robinson established the Robinson Pilot Safety Course in 1982 to educate Certified Flight Instructors transitioning from larger helicopters to
7344-419: The front of the helicopter to clear the skids from the ground after the wheels are installed and rotated to lift the rear of the skids. This makes it possible for a single person to move the helicopter, even over significant distances or not-level surfaces. Tow carts are available with a variety of features. There exist manual versions which place the ball mating device behind the wheels so the operator engages
7452-402: The front rotor tilts right and the rear rotor tilts left. To pivot left, the front rotor tilts left and the rear rotor tilts right. All rotor power contributes to lift, and it is simpler to handle changes in the center of gravity fore-aft. However, it requires the expense of two large rotors rather than the more common one large main rotor and a much smaller tail rotor. The Boeing CH-47 Chinook
7560-426: The fuel use and permits reasonable range. The hover efficiency ("figure of merit") of a typical helicopter is around 60%. The inner third length of a rotor blade contributes very little to lift due to its low airspeed. The blades of a helicopter are long, narrow airfoils with a high aspect ratio , a shape that minimizes drag from tip vortices (see the wings of a glider for comparison). They generally contain
7668-425: The governor is active when the engine is running only above 80% and is most effective in normal flight conditions. Robinson introduced the governor to ease pilot workload and to reduce instances of main rotor stall due to low rotor RPM. The governor can be switched on or off with a toggle switch located at the end of the pilot's collective pitch control. When the governor is not engaged, a yellow caution light glows on
7776-470: The helicopter components. Controls vary the pitch of the main rotor blades cyclically throughout rotation. The pilot uses this to control the direction of the rotor thrust vector , which defines the part of the rotor disc where the maximum thrust develops. Collective pitch varies the magnitude of rotor thrust by increasing or decreasing thrust over the whole rotor disc at the same time. These blade pitch variations are controlled by tilting, raising, or lowering
7884-497: The helicopter without blade folding or dismantling tasks possible. Transporting the R22 requires securing the tail boom and rotor blades to a truck or trailer bed, which must be torsionally rigid to prevent motion and stresses being applied to the helicopter during transportation. Take off and landing directly onto a trailer is possible. The R22 is the basis for Boeing 's Maverick military unmanned aerial vehicle helicopter, and its Renegade version. In 1999, Frontier Systems developed
7992-429: The individual blades through pitch links and pitch horns. The non-rotating plate is connected to links that are manipulated by pilot controls—specifically, the collective and cyclic controls. The swash plate can shift vertically and tilt. Through shifting and tilting, the non-rotating plate controls the rotating plate, which in turn controls the individual blade pitch. A number of engineers, among them Arthur M. Young in
8100-521: The instrument cluster to the engine compartment for better balance. The R22 has been offered as an instrument trainer version, with optional fixed floats as the R22 Mariner, and other special configurations for police work, electronic news gathering, and so on. The R22 Beta II received a larger Lycoming O-360 engine derated for sea-level operation. It allows greater altitudes for hovering in and out of ground effect (HIGE/HOGE). The R22 Beta II also made
8208-497: The instrument panel. The R22 uses a horizontally mounted Lycoming O-320 (O-360-J2A on the Beta II), flat-four , air-cooled , naturally aspirated , carburetor -equipped, reciprocating engine . It is fueled with 100LL grade aviation gasoline. JTI Air Holdings, Inc., offers an STC allowing use of 91+ octane non-ethanol automotive gasoline. Cooling is provided through a direct-drive, squirrel-cage cooling fan. At sea level, it
8316-495: The most unusual design of this type was the Rotary Rocket Roton ATV , which was originally envisioned to take off using a rocket-tipped rotor. The French Sud-Ouest Djinn used unburnt compressed air to drive the rotor, which minimized noise and helped it become the only tip jet driven rotor helicopter to enter production. The Hughes XH-17 had a tip jet-driven rotor, which remains the largest rotor ever fitted to
8424-452: The need for lubrication is eliminated in this design. The third hinge in the fully articulated system is called the feathering hinge about the feathering axis. This hinge is responsible for the change in pitch of rotor blades excited via pilot input to the collective or cyclic. A variation of the fully articulated system is the soft-in-plane rotor system. This type of rotor can be found on several aircraft produced by Bell Helicopter, such as
8532-414: The new, smaller R22. After the introduction of the Robinson Pilot Safety Course, the rate of fatal R22 accidents declined from 3.7 per 100,000 flight hours in 1983 to 0.97 per 100,000 flight hours for the 12 months preceding July 1995. Robinson's statistics show the rate of fatal R22 accidents per 100,000 flight hours fell from 6.0 in 1982 to 0.7 in 1997. As of 2012, more than 17,000 students have gone through
8640-467: The original R22. The steel-tube frame on the R22 Alpha was modified by extending the aft landing-gear mounting points, giving it a slightly nose-down attitude on the ground and better matching of the skids to the ground in a low-altitude hover with two people on board. The R22 Beta added an engine speed governor (optional), rotor brake, and auxiliary fuel tank (optional). The battery was moved from below
8748-495: The other. Coaxial rotors are two rotors mounted one above the other on the same axis. Intermeshing rotors are two rotors mounted close to each other at a sufficient angle to let the rotors intermesh over the top of the aircraft. Another configuration—found on tiltrotors and some early helicopters—is called transverse rotors, where a pair of rotors are mounted at each end of a wing-type structure or outrigger. Tandem rotors are two horizontal main rotor assemblies mounted one behind
8856-480: The other. Tandem rotors achieve pitch attitude changes to accelerate and decelerate the helicopter through a process called cyclic pitch. To pitch forward and accelerate, both rotors increase the pitch at the rear and reduce the pitch at the front (cyclic) keeping torque the same on both rotors, flying sideways is achieved by increasing the pitch on one side and reducing pitch on the other. Yaw control develops through opposing cyclic pitch in each rotor. To pivot right,
8964-411: The pilot's workload, a mechanical throttle correlator adjusts the throttle as the collective pitch control is raised or lowered. The pilot needs to make only small adjustments by twisting the throttle grip on the collective throughout the flight regime. Later models are also equipped with an electronic governor , which works to maintain engine speed within normal operating limits (between 97 and 104%);
9072-585: The rear. Intermeshing rotors on a helicopter are a set of two rotors turning in opposite directions with each rotor mast mounted on the helicopter with a slight angle to the other so that the blades intermesh without colliding. This configuration is sometimes referred to as a synchropter. Intermeshing rotors have high stability and powerful lifting capability. The arrangement was pioneered in Nazi Germany in 1939 with Anton Flettner 's successful Flettner Fl 265 design, and later placed in limited production as
9180-406: The recognized convention for helicopter design, although designs do vary. When viewed from above, most American helicopter rotors turn counter-clockwise; French and Russian helicopters turn clockwise. Another type of rotorcraft is the tiltrotor , which has many similarities to helicopter main rotors when in mode of powered lift . With a single main rotor helicopter, the creation of torque as
9288-455: The rotor. The Lockheed rotor system used a control gyro, similar in principle to that of the Bell stabilizer bar, but designed for both hands-off stability and rapid control response of the hingeless rotor system. In fly-by-wire helicopters or Remote Control (RC) models, a microcontroller with gyroscope sensors and a Venturi sensor can replace the stabilizer. This flybar-less design has
9396-417: The rotor. This makes it easier for the pilot to maintain control of the aircraft. Stanley Hiller arrived at a similar method to improve stability by adding short stubby airfoils, or paddles, at each end. However, Hiller's "Rotormatic" system also delivered cyclic control inputs to the main rotor as a sort of control rotor, and the paddles provided the added stability by damping the effects of external forces on
9504-403: The shear bearing inside the grip. This yoke does transfer some movement of one blade to another, usually opposing blades. While this is not fully articulated, the flight characteristics are very similar and maintenance time and cost are reduced. The term rigid rotor usually refers to a hingeless rotor system with blades flexibly attached to the hub. Irv Culver of Lockheed developed one of
9612-430: The small rotor limits weight. The first R22 sold, October, 1979, S/N 003, N1010WR, was purchased by Pacific Wing and Rotor, Inc., represented by Tim Tucker who later became a test pilot and chief instructor for Robinson. S/N 001 was crashed in the ocean during certification testing due to a failure of the casting that mates the tail rotor gearbox and stabilizing fins to the conical monocoque aluminum tail boom and S/N 002
9720-535: The software enabled control (SEC) program, was developed by Boeing and teams from the University of California, Berkeley , Georgia Institute of Technology , and Massachusetts Institute of Technology , and was first flown on May 26, 2005. During the flight, the SEC assumed control of the aircraft to "execute autonomous maneuvering algorithms". The software allows the aircraft to autonomously select "optimal routes through
9828-518: The southeast side of the airfield and are the largest buildings at the field. Zamperini Field is the new home of the Western Museum of Flight , previously in Hawthorne, California . [REDACTED] This article incorporates public domain material from the Air Force Historical Research Agency Helicopter rotor On a helicopter , the main rotor or rotor system is
9936-520: The specific training required by the low-inertia rotor system and a teetering main rotor, operation of the Robinson R22 or R44 in the US requires a special endorsement by a certified flight instructor. SFAR 73 includes discussion and training on energy management, mast bumping, low rotor RPM (blade stall), low G hazards and rotor RPM decay. Tip weights were added to the R22 to increase rotor inertia, but
10044-673: The successful Flettner Fl 282 Kolibri , used by the German Kriegsmarine in small numbers (24 airframes produced) as an experimental light anti-submarine warfare helicopter. During the Cold War , an American company, Kaman Aircraft , produced the HH-43 Huskie for USAF firefighting and rescue missions. The latest Kaman model, the Kaman K-MAX , is a dedicated sky crane design. Transverse rotors are mounted on
10152-410: The swash plate with the flight controls. The vast majority of helicopters maintain a constant rotor speed (RPM) during flight, leaving the angle of attack of the blades as the sole means of adjusting thrust from the rotor. The swash plate is two concentric disks or plates. One plate rotates with the mast, connected by idle links, while the other does not rotate. The rotating plate is also connected to
10260-438: The tail boom and is driven by the main rotor transmission. To provide the sideways force to counteract the clockwise torque produced by a counterclockwise-spinning main rotor (as seen from above the main rotor), the variable-pitch fan forces low pressure air through two slots on the right side of the tailboom, causing the downwash from the main rotor to hug the tailboom, producing lift and thus a measure of antitorque proportional to
10368-495: The tail boom. The blade pitch is typically controlled by the pilot using the helicopter flight controls . Helicopters are one example of rotary-wing aircraft ( rotorcraft ). The name is derived from the Greek words helix , helik-, meaning spiral; and pteron meaning wing. The helicopter rotor is powered by the engine, through the transmission, to the rotating mast. The mast is a cylindrical metal shaft that extends upward from—and
10476-498: The tail rotor. A predecessor (of sorts) to this system existed in the form of Great Britain's Cierva W.9 helicopter, a late 1940s aircraft using the cooling fan from its piston engine to push air through a nozzle built into the tailboom to counteract rotor-torque. The main rotor may be driven by tip jets. Such a system may be powered by high pressure air provided by a compressor. The air may or may not be mixed with fuel and burnt in ram-jets, pulse-jets, or rockets. Though this method
10584-424: The tail, each equipped with a teetering hinge. The main rotor rotates with the starboard (right) side blade moving forward. The main rotor is also equipped with two coning hinges. Collective and cyclic pitch inputs to the main rotor are transmitted through pushrods and a conventional swashplate mechanism. Control inputs to the tail rotor are transmitted through a single pushrod inside the aluminum tail cone. To ease
10692-520: The terminal are historical papers related to the airport on the wall and a security post. A Lockheed T-33 (#52-9239) is on display on the turn court outside the terminal. The helipad for a neighboring hospital, the Torrance Memorial Medical Center , is at the north-west corner of the airfield. Zamperini Field is the home of Robinson Helicopter Company . Their entire production, assembly, and testing facilities are on
10800-405: The upper and lower surfaces do not have the same camber. Normally these airfoils would not be as stable, but this can be corrected by bending the trailing edge to produce the same characteristics as symmetrical airfoils. This is called "reflexing." Using this type of rotor blade allows the rotor system to operate at higher forward speeds. One of the reasons an asymmetrical rotor blade is not as stable
10908-415: The year ending January 31, 2016, the airport had 119,034 aircraft operations, average 325 per day: 99% general aviation , <1% military and <1% air taxi . 276 aircraft are based at the airport: 89% single-engine, 9% multi-engine and 2% helicopter . Zamperini Field has a small terminal with a vending machine, conference room, bathroom, and flight planning room. Outside a patio has small tables. Inside
11016-468: Was US$ 48,000, ($ 201,508 in 2023). As of 15 January 2024, the R22 Beta II has a suggested retail price of US$ 375,000 (ex-factory price, USA) and the value on the second-hand market is dependent on component time in service. The estimated operating cost of a R22 Beta II, per the factory, including insurance, reserve for overhaul, and direct operating cost (fuel, oil, inspections, unscheduled maintenance)
11124-858: Was completed by the United States Army Air Forces on March 31, 1943, and was known as Lomita Flight Strip . It was an emergency landing field for military aircraft on training flights. It was closed after World War II and the War Assets Administration (WAA) turned it over to local government. Once turned over to the City of Torrance it was renamed Zamperini Field on December 7, 1946. Zamperini Field covers 506 acres (205 ha ) and has two asphalt/concrete runways: 11L/29R, 5,000 x 150 ft (1,524 x 46 m) and 11R/29L, 3,000 x 75 ft (914 x 23 m). It has one asphalt helipad , 110 x 110 ft (34 x 34 m). In
11232-433: Was flying in the 2010s had 18 electrically powered rotors; the single seat aircraft is powered by batteries. The first aerobatic manned drone, as this type of electrically powered multi-rotor helicopter is known, had 12 rotors and could carry 1-2 people. Manned drones or eVTOL as they are called typically multirotor designs powered by batteries gained increasing popularity and designs in the 2020s. The naming of some of
11340-425: Was in mustering operations, while 13% of hours were spent in training pilots. Many broadcasters used the R22 until the mid-1990s, when the financial landscape of radio broadcasting in the U.S. changed due to deregulation of the industry. Since the R22 received FAA certification in March 1979, Robinson has delivered 4,800 R22 helicopters up to 2019. The R22 had 182 fatal accidents between March 1979 and June 2010 from
11448-441: Was installed in the cockpit and on the belt tension actuator, isolating the tensioning circuits and locking the clutch/drive system at take-off tension. The problem was ultimately solved by replacing the four individual v-belts with two dual v-belts. The upper, driven sheave is mounted on the main/tail rotor drive shaft incorporating flexible couplings, and is raised and lowered relative to the engine-mounted, driving sheave by means of
11556-418: Was under-powered and could not fly. The Hiller YH-32 Hornet had good lifting capability but performed poorly otherwise. Other aircraft used auxiliary thrust for translational flight so that the tip jets could be shut down while the rotor autorotated. The experimental Fairey Jet Gyrodyne , 48-seat Fairey Rotodyne passenger prototypes and McDonnell XV-1 compound gyroplanes flew well using this method. Perhaps
11664-503: Was used to complete the FAA certification. S/N 002, N32AD, is still owned by Robinson and is now preserved in the collection of the Smithsonian Air and Space Museum. By 2019, 4800 R22 had been made. Initially, Robinson projected the sale price in 1977 to be US$ 18-19,000. However, 3 months prior to initial deliveries starting in 1979, the price was raised to US$ 33,850. Per Tim Tucker, the sale price for S/N 003 including options
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