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112-403: Rationing is the controlled distribution of scarce resources, goods, services, or an artificial restriction of demand. Rationing controls the size of the ration , which is one's allowed portion of the resources being distributed on a particular day or at a particular time. There are many forms of rationing, although rationing by price is most prevalent. Rationing is often done to keep price below

224-448: A shortage or a surplus to reach this state. A shortage indicates that buyers are interested in purchasing something, but need help to afford to do so at current prices. Conversely, a surplus occurs when there is an excess product beyond the quantity that buyers are willing to purchase at current prices. New classical economics does not assume perfect information in the short run, but markets may approach efficient outcomes as information

336-658: A broad one. Static magnetic fields , for reasons still unknown, retard animal development. The quality and quantity of usable meat depends on the animal's plane of nutrition , i.e., whether it is over- or underfed. Scientists disagree about how exactly the plane of nutrition influences carcase composition. The composition of the diet, especially the amount of protein provided, is an important factor regulating animal growth. Ruminants , which may digest cellulose , are better adapted to poor-quality diets, but their ruminal microorganisms degrade high-quality protein if supplied in excess. Because producing high-quality protein animal feed

448-655: A certain amount of a product each month. Rationing often includes food and other necessities for which there is a shortage, including materials needed for the war effort such as rubber tires, leather shoes, clothing, and fuel. Rationing of food and water may also become necessary during an emergency, such as a natural disaster or terror attack . In the U.S., the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) has established guidelines for rationing food and water when replacements are not available. According to FEMA standards, every person should have

560-424: A free market tend towards equilibrium, where the quantity of goods or services supplied equals the quantity demanded. The theory assumes that prices adjust quickly to any changes in supply or demand, meaning that markets can reach equilibrium instantaneously. For example, consider a scenario where a community experiences an earthquake that destroys all houses and apartments. The sudden demand for new housing will create

672-472: A government to allow the holder to obtain food or other commodities that are in short supply during wartime or in other emergency situations when rationing is in force. Ration stamps were widely used during World War II by both sides after hostilities caused interruption to the normal supply of goods. They were also used after the end of the war while the economies of the belligerents gradually returned to normal. Ration stamps were also used to help maintain

784-421: A level above that permitted by their initial allocation would be able to engage in emissions trading and purchase additional credits. Conversely, those individuals who emit at a level below that permitted by their initial allocation have the opportunity to sell their surplus credits. Thus, individual trading under Personal Carbon Trading is similar to the trading of companies under EU ETS . Personal carbon trading

896-580: A man's food ration. Children received only half. During the Siege of Ladysmith in the early stages of the Boer War in 1900, white adults received the same food rations as soldiers while children received half that. Food rations for Indian people and black people were significantly smaller. The first modern rationing systems were imposed during the First World War . In Germany , suffering from

1008-554: A maximum limit on its use. (The latter is the case with carbon rationing, where the scarcity is artificial). Usually, the government determines a fair ration, for example, one proportional to the number of family members. If participants possess different rights to a portion (even when they have the same need) and there is not enough for everyone, then one of the many algorithms for solving the bankruptcy problem may apply. Sweden from 1919 to 1955 and Finland from 1944 to 1970, also Estonia from 1 July 1920 to 31 December 1925 sought to limit

1120-494: A minimum of 1 US quart (0.95 L) per day of water, and more for children, nursing mothers, and the ill. Military sieges have often resulted in shortages of food and other essentials. In such circumstances, the rations allocated to an individual have often been determined based on age, sex, race or social standing. During the Siege of Lucknow (part of the Indian Rebellion of 1857 ) women received three-quarters of

1232-587: A predetermined age or weight, livestock are usually transported en masse to the slaughterhouse. Depending on its length and circumstances, this may exert stress and injuries on the animals, and some may die en route . Unnecessary stress in transport may adversely affect the quality of the meat. In particular, the muscles of stressed animals are low in water and glycogen , and their pH fails to attain acidic values, all of which results in poor meat quality. Animals are usually slaughtered by being first stunned and then exsanguinated (bled out). Death results from

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1344-895: A result of cobalt deficiency in the soil. Plant toxins are a risk to grazing animals; for instance, sodium fluoroacetate , found in some African and Australian plants, kills by disrupting the cellular metabolism . Some man-made pollutants such as methylmercury and some pesticide residues present a particular hazard as they bioaccumulate in meat, potentially poisoning consumers. Practices such as confinement in factory farming have generated concerns for animal welfare . Animals have abnormal behaviors such as tail-biting, cannibalism, and feather pecking . Invasive procedures such as beak trimming , castration , and ear notching have similarly been questioned. Breeding for high productivity may affect welfare, as when broiler chickens are bred to be very large and to grow rapidly. Broilers often have leg deformities and become lame, and many die from

1456-414: A temporary shortage of houses and apartments in the market. However, if prices are free to change, construction companies will build new houses in the short run, while new companies will enter the house and apartment construction market in the longer run. As a result, the housing supply will increase, eventually reaching a point where it equals the new demand. This adjustment mechanism clears the shortage from

1568-451: A time from 1947). Tea was still rationed until 1952. In 1953 rationing of sugar and eggs ended and in 1954, all rationing was abolished when cheese and meats came off ration. Sugar was again rationed in 1974 after Caribbean producers began selling to the more lucrative United States market. Some centralized planned economies introduced peacetime rationing systems due to food shortages in the postwar period. North Korea and China did so in

1680-451: Is a market surplus (glut), where prices fall until all the excess supply is sold. An example of excess supply is Christmas decorations that are still in stores several days after Christmas; the stores that still have boxes of decorations view these products as excess supply, so prices are discounted until shoppers buy all the decorations (to keep them until next Christmas). For 150 years (from approximately 1785 to 1935), most economists took

1792-497: Is a risk; in 2013, products in Europe labelled as beef actually contained horse meat . Meat can be cooked in many ways, including braising , broiling , frying , grilling , and roasting . Meat can be cured by smoking , which preserves and flavors food by exposing it to smoke from burning or smoldering wood. Other methods of curing include pickling , salting , and air-drying. Some recipes call for raw meat; steak tartare

1904-453: Is a shortage, which would drive the market price very high. High prices, especially in the case of necessities, are undesirable with regard to those who cannot afford them. However, economists point out that high prices act to reduce waste of the scarce resource, while also providing incentive to produce more. Rationing using ration stamps is only one kind of non-price rationing. For example, scarce products can be rationed using queues. This

2016-437: Is animal tissue , often muscle , that is eaten as food. Humans have hunted and farmed other animals for meat since prehistory. The Neolithic Revolution allowed the domestication of vertebrates , including chickens , sheep , goats , pigs , horses , and cattle , starting around 11,000 years ago. Since then, selective breeding has enabled farmers to produce meat with the qualities desired by producers and consumers. Meat

2128-404: Is anticipated. Heat regulation in livestock is of economic significance, as mammals attempt to maintain a constant optimal body temperature. Low temperatures tend to prolong animal development and high temperatures tend to delay it. Depending on their size, body shape and insulation through tissue and fur, some animals have a relatively narrow zone of temperature tolerance and others (e.g. cattle)

2240-734: Is based on minimal standards and is frequently not achieved, as has been the case in Kenya. According to Article 20 of the Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees refugees shall be treated as national citizens in rationing schemes when there is a rationing system in place for the general population. As the British Royal Commission on the National Health Service observed in 1979, "whatever

2352-417: Is being reversed by consumer demand for leaner meat. The fatty deposits near the muscle fibers in meats soften meat when it is cooked, improve its flavor, and make the meat seem juicier. Fat around meat further contains cholesterol . The increase in meat consumption after 1960 is associated with significant imbalances of fat and cholesterol in the human diet. Biomass of mammals on Earth Upon reaching

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2464-411: Is consumed, and egg and/or dairy consumption may or may not be strictly restricted. The type of meat consumed varies between different cultures. The amount and kind of meat consumed varies by income, both between countries and within a given country. Horses are commonly eaten in countries such as France, Italy, Germany and Japan. Horses and other large mammals such as reindeer were hunted during

2576-405: Is discovered. If the sale price exceeds the market-clearing price, supply will exceed demand, and a surplus inventory will build up over the long run . If the sale price is lower than the market-clearing price, then demand will exceed supply, and in the long run, shortages will result, where buyers sometimes find no products for sale at any price. The market-clearing theory states that prices in

2688-445: Is expensive, several techniques are employed or experimented with to ensure maximum utilization of protein. These include the treatment of feed with formalin to protect amino acids during their passage through the rumen , the recycling of manure by feeding it back to cattle mixed with feed concentrates, or the conversion of petroleum hydrocarbons to protein through microbial action. In plant feed, environmental factors influence

2800-564: Is important to economies and cultures around the world. The word meat comes from the Old English word mete , meaning food in general. In modern usage, meat primarily means skeletal muscle with its associated fat and connective tissue, but it can include offal , other edible organs such as liver and kidney . The term is sometimes used in a more restrictive sense to mean the flesh of mammalian species (pigs, cattle, sheep, goats, etc.) raised and prepared for human consumption, to

2912-653: Is in effect in Cuba and North Korea. Aid agencies, such as the World Food Programme , provide food rations and other essentials to refugees or internally displaced persons who are registered with the UNHCR and are either living in refugee camps or are supported in urban centres . Every registered refugee is given a ration card upon registration which is used for collecting the rations from food distribution centres. The 2,100 calories allocated per person per day

3024-877: Is made from minced raw beef. Pâtés are made with ground meat and fat, often including liver . Meat, in particular red and processed meat, is linked to a variety of health risks. The 2015–2020 Dietary Guidelines for Americans asked men and teenage boys to increase their consumption of vegetables or other underconsumed foods (fruits, whole grains, and dairy) while reducing intake of protein foods (meats, poultry, and eggs) that they currently overconsume. Toxic compounds including heavy metals , mycotoxins , pesticide residues, dioxins , polychlorinated biphenyl can contaminate meat. Processed, smoked and cooked meat may contain carcinogens such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons . Toxins may be introduced to meat as part of animal feed, as veterinary drug residues, or during processing and cooking. Such compounds are often metabolized in

3136-509: Is mainly composed of water, protein, and fat. Its quality is affected by many factors, including the genetics, health, and nutritional status of the animal involved. Without preservation, bacteria and fungi decompose and spoil unprocessed meat within hours or days. Under optimal conditions, meat is edible raw , but is often normally eaten cooked—such as by stewing or roasting —or processed —such as by smoking or salting . The consumption of meat (especially red and processed meat) increases

3248-501: Is particularly prevalent in the US, but has been banned in the EU, partly because it causes antimicrobial resistance in pathogenic microorganisms. The biochemical composition of meat varies in complex ways depending on the species, breed, sex, age, plane of nutrition, training and exercise of the animal, as well as on the anatomical location of the musculature involved. Even between animals of

3360-413: Is seen, for example, at amusement parks , where one pays a price to get in and then need not pay any price to go on the rides. Similarly, in the absence of road pricing , access to roads is rationed in a first come, first served queueing process, leading to congestion . Authorities which introduce rationing often have to deal with the rationed goods being sold illegally on the black market . Despite

3472-449: Is set to the minimum of the participant's ideal ration and a cap, the cap being determined so that the sum of the rations equals the amount available. So, loosely speaking, the participant asking least will be served first. This mechanism is strategy-proof, avoids unnecessary waste (Pareto optimality) and equally treats equals (anonymity.) In fact, it is the only such mechanism. (Anonymity in this statement can be replaced by envyfreeness). For

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3584-402: Is sometimes confused with carbon offsetting due to the similar notion of paying for emissions allowances, but is a quite different concept designed to be mandatory and to guarantee that nations achieve their domestic carbon emissions targets (rather than attempting to do so via international trading or offsetting). The purpose of rationing is to guarantee a minimum of some resource or to impose

3696-420: Is tender and pliable when cooked just after death or after the resolution of rigor , but tough when cooked during rigor. As the muscle pigment myoglobin denatures, its iron oxidizes , which may cause a brown discoloration near the surface of the meat. Ongoing proteolysis contributes to conditioning: hypoxanthine , a breakdown product of ATP, contributes to meat's flavor and odor, as do other products of

3808-450: Is very low in carbohydrates and does not contain dietary fiber. The fat content of meat varies widely with the species and breed of animal, the way in which the animal was raised, what it was fed, the part of the body, and the methods of butchering and cooking. Wild animals such as deer are leaner than farm animals, leading those concerned about fat content to choose game such as venison . Decades of breeding meat animals for fatness

3920-424: The 1973 oil crisis . The United States introduced odd–even rationing for fuels during the crisis, which allowed only vehicles with even-numbered numberplates to fill up on gas one day and odd-numbered ones on another. Poland enacted rationing in 1981 to cope with economic crisis. The rationing system initially encompassed most of the population's daily necessities, but was gradually phased out over time, with

4032-663: The California State Water Resources Control Board had mandatory water-use restrictions. In 2021, Sri Lanka , facing a major economic crisis, is considering introducing food rationing. According to The Hindu , "President Gotabaya Rajapaksa has called in the army to manage the crisis by rationing the supply of various essential goods." In 2023, Iran began the National Credit Network mechanism. As of 2024, peacetime rationing for basic foodstuffs and similar goods

4144-805: The Translational Genomics Research Institute showed that nearly half (47%) of the meat and poultry in U.S. grocery stores were contaminated with S. aureus , with more than half (52%) of those bacteria resistant to antibiotics. A 2018 investigation by the Bureau of Investigative Journalism and The Guardian found that around 15 percent of the US population suffers from foodborne illnesses every year. The investigation highlighted unsanitary conditions in US-based meat plants, which included meat products covered in excrement and abscesses "filled with pus". Complete cooking and

4256-649: The breeding of animals to improve meat production. In the postwar period , governments gave farmers guaranteed prices to increase animal production. The effect was to raise output at the cost of increased inputs such as of animal feed and veterinary medicines, as well as of animal disease and environmental pollution. In 1966, the United States, the United Kingdom and other industrialized nations, began factory farming of beef and dairy cattle and domestic pigs. Intensive animal farming became globalized in

4368-458: The demand of prospective borrowers. Changing the price of the loans (interest rate) does not balance loan demand and supply. Personal carbon trading refers to proposed emissions trading schemes under which emissions credits are allocated to adult individuals on a (broadly) equal per capita basis, within national carbon budgets . Individuals then surrender these credits when buying fuel or electricity. Individuals wanting or needing to emit at

4480-406: The market-clearing price determined by the process of supply and demand in an unfettered market . Thus, rationing can be complementary to price controls . An example of rationing in the face of rising prices took place in the various countries where there was rationing of gasoline during the 1973 energy crisis . A reason for setting the price lower than would clear the market may be that there

4592-409: The motboks were distributed per household, not per person, wives had to share their household allowance with their husbands, and in fact thus got nothing at all. People often sought to circumvent the rationing by making frequent use of friends or even strangers' booklets, for example by rewarding a young woman with a dinner out in return for the other party consuming most or all of the alcohol incurring

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4704-680: The 1970s and 1980s, as did Socialist Republic of Romania during Ceausescu's rule in the 1980s, the Soviet Union in 1990–1991, and from 1962–present in Cuba . From 1949 to 1959, Israel was under a regime of austerity , during which rationing was enforced. At first, only staple foods such as cooking oil, sugar, and margarine were rationed, but it was later expanded, and eventually included furniture and footwear. Every month, each citizen would get food coupons worth six Israeli pounds , and every family would be allotted food. The average Israeli diet

4816-494: The 1991–2000 "special period", though admitted that it would negatively affect consumption. Short-term rationing for gas and other fuels was introduced in the U.S. states of New Jersey and New York following Hurricane Sandy in 2012. In April 2019, Venezuela announced a 30-day electricity rationing regime in the face of power shortages. For a few years during a series of droughts in California (from 2015 to 2019),

4928-929: The National Cancer Institute published results of a study which found that human subjects who ate beef rare or medium-rare had less than one third the risk of stomach cancer than those who ate beef medium-well or well-done. While eating muscle meat raw may be the only way to avoid HCAs fully, the National Cancer Institute states that cooking meat below 100 °C (212 °F) creates "negligible amounts" of HCAs. Microwaving meat before cooking may reduce HCAs by 90%. Nitrosamines , present in processed and cooked foods, are carcinogenic, being linked to colon cancer. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons , present in processed, smoked and cooked foods, are similarly carcinogenic. Bacterial contamination has been seen with meat products. A 2011 study by

5040-399: The United Kingdom could survive with only domestic food production if U-boats ended all imports. Using 1938 food-production data, they fed themselves and other volunteers a limited diet, while simulating the strenuous wartime physical work Britons would likely have to perform. The scientists found that the subjects' health and performance remained very good after three months. They also headed

5152-492: The United Kingdom. The Office of Price Administration (OPA) warned Americans of potential gasoline, steel, aluminum and electricity shortages. It believed that with factories converting to military production and consuming many critical supplies, rationing would become necessary if the country entered the war. It established a rationing system after the attack on Pearl Harbor . In June 1942 the Combined Food Board

5264-431: The adjustment mechanism that, if present, could introduce rigidities and make prices sticky . In another interpretation , price adjustment could worsen matters, causing what Irving Fisher called " debt deflation ". Not all economists accept these theories. They attribute what appears to be imperfect clearing to factors like labor unions or government policy, thereby exonerating the clearing mechanism. Most economists see

5376-412: The amount of food one could hold at a time. This was so that one person would not have more food than another. Market clearing A market-clearing price is the price of a good or service at which the quantity supplied equals the quantity demanded, also called the equilibrium price . The theory claims that markets tend to move toward this price. Supply is fixed for a one-time sale of goods, so

5488-546: The animal genome . To enable such manipulation, the genomes of many animals are being mapped . Some research has already seen commercial application. For instance, a recombinant bacterium has been developed which improves the digestion of grass in the rumen of cattle, and some specific features of muscle fibers have been genetically altered. Experimental reproductive cloning of commercially important meat animals such as sheep, pig or cattle has been successful. Multiple asexual reproduction of animals bearing desirable traits

5600-662: The animal to store energy and consisting of "true fats" ( esters of glycerol with fatty acids ), or intramuscular fat, which contains phospholipids and cholesterol . Meat can be broadly classified as "red" or "white" depending on the concentration of myoglobin in muscle fiber. When myoglobin is exposed to oxygen , reddish oxymyoglobin develops, making myoglobin-rich meat appear red. The redness of meat depends on species, animal age, and fiber type: Red meat contains more narrow muscle fibers that tend to operate over long periods without rest, while white meat contains more broad fibers that tend to work in short fast bursts, such as

5712-413: The animal's commercial value. Genetic analysis continues to reveal the genetic mechanisms that control numerous aspects of the endocrine system and, through it, meat growth and quality. Genetic engineering techniques can shorten breeding programs significantly because they allow for the identification and isolation of genes coding for desired traits, and for the reincorporation of these genes into

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5824-482: The assumption of continuous market clearing as unrealistic. However, many see the concept of flexible prices as useful in the long-run analysis since prices are not stuck forever: market-clearing models describe the equilibrium economy gravitates towards. Therefore, many macro-economists feel that price flexibility is a reasonable assumption for studying long-run issues, such as growth in real GDP . Other economists argue that price adjustment may take so much time that

5936-471: The availability of crucial nutrients or micronutrients , a lack or excess of which can cause a great many ailments. In Australia, where the soil contains limited phosphate , cattle are fed additional phosphate to increase the efficiency of beef production. Also in Australia, cattle and sheep in certain areas were often found losing their appetite and dying in the midst of rich pasture; this was found to be

6048-436: The best possible genetic quality, and the efficiency of this method is improved through the administration of hormones that synchronize the ovulation cycles within groups of females. Growth hormones , particularly anabolic agents such as steroids , are used in some countries to accelerate muscle growth in animals. This practice has given rise to the beef hormone controversy , an international trade dispute. It may decrease

6160-551: The body to form harmful by-products. Negative effects depend on the individual genome, diet, and history of the consumer. The consumption of processed and red meat carries an increased risk of cancer. The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC), a specialized agency of the World Health Organization (WHO), classified processed meat (e.g., bacon, ham, hot dogs, sausages) as, "carcinogenic to humans (Group 1), based on sufficient evidence in humans that

6272-480: The brief flight of the chicken. The meat of adult mammals such as cows , sheep , and horses is considered red, while chicken and turkey breast meat is considered white. Muscle tissue is high in protein, containing all of the essential amino acids , and in most cases is a good source of zinc , vitamin B 12 , selenium , phosphorus , niacin , vitamin B 6 , choline , riboflavin and iron. Several forms of meat are high in vitamin K . Muscle tissue

6384-405: The carcass is necessary because blood causes the meat to have an unappealing appearance and is a breeding ground for microorganisms. After exsanguination, the carcass is dressed; that is, the head, feet, hide (except hogs and some veal), excess fat, viscera and offal are removed, leaving only bones and edible muscle. Cattle and pig carcases, but not those of sheep, are then split in half along

6496-726: The consumption of alcohol by rationing with Bratt System , where each household was given a booklet ( motbok in Sweden, viinakortti in Finland, tšekisüsteem in Estonia), where after each purchase of alcoholic beverages, a stamp was added, based on the amount of alcohol bought. If the buyer had reached their monthly ration, they would have to wait until next month to buy more. The rations were based on gender, income, wealth and social status, with unemployed people and welfare recipients not being allowed to buy any alcohol at all. In addition, since

6608-1131: The consumption of processed meat causes colorectal cancer." IARC classified red meat as "probably carcinogenic to humans (Group 2A), based on limited evidence that the consumption of red meat causes cancer in humans and strong mechanistic evidence supporting a carcinogenic effect." Cancer Research UK , National Health Service (NHS) and the National Cancer Institute have stated that red and processed meat intake increases risk of bowel cancer . The American Cancer Society in their "Diet and Physical Activity Guideline", stated "evidence that red and processed meats increase cancer risk has existed for decades, and many health organizations recommend limiting or avoiding these foods." The Canadian Cancer Society have stated that "eating red and processed meat increases cancer risk". A 2021 review found an increase of 11–51% risk of multiple cancer per 100g/d increment of red meat, and an increase of 8–72% risk of multiple cancer per 50g/d increment of processed meat. Cooking muscle meat creates heterocyclic amines (HCAs), which are thought to increase cancer risk in humans. Researchers at

6720-522: The country, through the "levelling of consumption of essential foodstuffs". To assist with rationing, ration books were introduced on 15 July 1918 for butter, margarine, lard, meat, and sugar. During the war, average caloric intake decreased by only three percent, but protein intake by six percent. Food rationing appeared in Poland after the First World War, and ration stamps were in use until

6832-571: The decomposition of muscle fat and protein. When meat is industrially processed, additives are used to protect or modify its flavor or color, to improve its tenderness, juiciness or cohesiveness, or to aid with its preservation . A bioarchaeological (specifically, isotopic analysis ) study of early medieval England found, based on the funerary record, that high-meat protein diets were extremely rare, and that (contrary to previously held assumptions) elites did not consume more meat than non-elites, and men did not consume more meat than women. In

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6944-488: The demands of customers. The trend towards selling meat in pre-packaged cuts has increased the demand for larger breeds of cattle, better suited to producing such cuts. Animals not previously exploited for their meat are now being farmed, including mammals such as antelope , zebra, water buffalo and camel, as well as non-mammals, such as crocodile, emu and ostrich. Organic farming supports an increasing demand for meat produced to that standard. Several factors affect

7056-551: The destruction of the transport infrastructure that once served colonies. Many countries had gasoline rationing that determined how much gasoline could be filled in a fuel tank, depending on whether the driver was essential to the war effort. Civilian peacetime rationing of food has been employed after natural disasters, during contingencies, or after failed governmental economic policies regarding production or distribution, as well as due to extensive austerity programs implemented to cut or restrict public spending in countries where

7168-510: The differing effects from deficiencies of salt and of water and produced the first tables to compare the nutritional contents of foods before and after cooking. They co-authored The Chemical Composition of Foods , first published in 1940 by the Medical Research Council . Their book, "McCance and Widdowson", became known as the dietician's bible and formed the basis for modern nutritional thinking. In 1939, they tested whether

7280-448: The early and mid 2010s and enjoyed considerable popularity among the island's citizens. Cuba later re-introduced a classical limiting rationing system in 2019, following the imposition of strict sanctions on the island by US President Donald Trump , as well as the collapse of petroleum shipments from Venezuela , which was facing its own economic troubles at that time. Cuba's president pitched the new system as significantly more lenient than

7392-467: The effects of the British blockade , a rationing system was introduced in 1914 and was steadily expanded over the following years as the situation worsened. Although Britain did not suffer from food shortages, as the sea lanes were kept open for food imports, panic buying towards the end of the war prompted the rationing of first sugar and then meat . It is said to have benefited the overall health of

7504-404: The end of 1941 the bread rations were reduced to 250 grams ( 8 + 3 ⁄ 4 ounces) for workers and 125 grams ( 4 + 1 ⁄ 2 ounces) for everyone else, which resulted in a surge of deaths caused by starvation. Starting in 1942 daily bread rations were increased to 350 grams ( 12 + 1 ⁄ 4 ounces) for workers and 200 grams (7 ounces) for everyone else. One of the documents of

7616-616: The end of the Polish–Soviet War . Rationing became common during the Second World War . Ration stamps were often used. These were redeemable stamps or coupons, and every family was issued a set number of each kind of stamp based on the size of the family, ages of children, and income. The British Ministry of Food refined the rationing process in the early 1940s to ensure the population did not starve when food imports were severely restricted and local production limited due to

7728-455: The exclusion of fish , other seafood, insects , poultry, or other animals. Paleontological evidence suggests that meat constituted a substantial proportion of the diet of the earliest humans. Early hunter-gatherers depended on the organized hunting of large animals such as bison and deer . Animals were domesticated in the Neolithic , enabling the systematic production of meat and

7840-632: The expenditure on health care, demand is likely to rise to meet and exceed it". Rationing health care to control costs is regarded as an explosive issue in the US, but in reality health care is rationed everywhere. In places where a government provides healthcare, rationing is explicit. In other places people are denied treatment because of personal lack of funds, or because of decisions made by insurance companies. The American Supreme Court approved paying doctors to ration care, stating that there must be "some incentive connecting physician reward with treatment rationing". Shortages of organs for donation forces

7952-406: The fact that rationing systems are sometimes necessary as the only viable option for societies facing severe consumer goods shortages, they are usually extremely unpopular with the general public, as they enforce limits on individual consumption. Rationing for civilians has most often been instituted during wartime. For example, each person may be given "ration coupons " which allow them to purchase

8064-455: The fall of 1943 and spring 1944. Egypt introduced a ration card-based subsidy of essential foodstuffs in 1945 that has persisted into the 21st century. New Zealand rationing in began in 1942 and was abolished on most foods in 1948, but continued on butter until 1950. Similarly rationing was introduced across the Japanese empire, as commodities such as rice became scarce in territories, after

8176-444: The first day after death, glycolysis continues until the accumulation of lactic acid causes the pH to reach about 5.5. The remaining glycogen , about 18 g per kg, increases the water-holding capacity and tenderness of cooked meat. Rigor mortis sets in a few hours after death as adenosine triphosphate is used up. This causes the muscle proteins actin and myosin to combine into rigid actomyosin . This in turn lowers

8288-583: The first ever mandated addition of vitamins and minerals to food, beginning with adding calcium to bread. Their work became the basis of the wartime austerity diet promoted by the Minister of Food , Lord Woolton . The British public's wartime diet was never as severe as in the Cambridge study because German U-boats failed to halt trans-Atlantic supply, but rationing improved the health of British people: infant mortality declined and life expectancy rose. This

8400-456: The glycolytic enzymes – are involved in glycolysis , the conversion of sugars into high-energy molecules, especially adenosine triphosphate (ATP). The two most abundant myofibrillar proteins, myosin and actin , form the muscle's overall structure and enable it to deliver power, consuming ATP in the process. The remaining protein mass includes connective tissue ( collagen and elastin ). Fat in meat can be either adipose tissue , used by

8512-450: The growth and development of meat. Some economically important traits in meat animals are heritable to some degree, and can thus be selected for by animal breeding . In cattle, certain growth features are controlled by recessive genes which have not so far been controlled, complicating breeding. One such trait is dwarfism ; another is the doppelender or " double muscling " condition, which causes muscle hypertrophy and thereby increases

8624-553: The highly successful " Digging for Victory " campaign. Most controversial was bread; it was not rationed until after the war ended, but the " national loaf " of wholemeal bread replaced the ordinary white variety, to the distaste of most housewives who found it mushy, grey, and easy to blame for digestive problems. Fish was not rationed, but fish prices increased considerably as the war progressed. In May 1941, Woolton appealed to Americans to reduce consumption of certain foods (dairy, sugar canned salmon and meat) so more of those could go to

8736-533: The increase. Overall, diets that include meat are the most common worldwide according to the results of a 2018 Ipsos MORI study of 16–64 years olds in 28 countries. Ipsos states "An omnivorous diet is the most common diet globally, with non-meat diets (which can include fish) followed by over a tenth of the global population." Approximately 87% of people include meat in their diet in some frequency. 73% of meat eaters included it in their diet regularly and 14% consumed meat only occasionally or infrequently. Estimates of

8848-468: The large number of men fighting the war. Rationing on a scientific basis was pioneered by Elsie Widdowson and Robert McCance at the Department of Experimental Medicine, University of Cambridge . They worked on the chemical composition of the human body, and on the nutritional value of different flours used to make bread. Widdowson also studied the impact of infant diet on human growth. They studied

8960-485: The last ration being abolished in 1989. Rationing in Cuba for basic goods was enacted in 1991 following the collapse of the Soviet Union , which had previously subsidised the island nation's economy. Rationing started being phased out in the year 2000 at the end of the "special period", as Cuba had shifted to a more diversified and self-sustaining economy. Rationing, however, was not fully abolished and instead turned into an alternative way to purchase goods, in addition to

9072-688: The late Paleolithic in western Europe. Dogs are consumed in China, South Korea and Vietnam. Dogs are occasionally eaten in the Arctic regions. Historically, dog meat has been consumed in various parts of the world, such as Hawaii, Japan, Switzerland and Mexico. Cats are sometimes eaten, such as in Peru. Guinea pigs are raised for their flesh in the Andes . Whales and dolphins are hunted, partly for their flesh, in several countries. Misidentification

9184-407: The later years of the 20th century, replacing traditional stock rearing in countries around the world. In 1990 intensive animal farming accounted for 30% of world meat production and by 2005, this had risen to 40%. Modern agriculture employs techniques such as progeny testing to speed selective breeding , allowing the rapid acquisition of the qualities desired by meat producers. For instance, in

9296-428: The market, establishing a new equilibrium where the market is in balance. This adjustment process is critical in ensuring that markets operate efficiently, promoting economic growth and stability. This increase in production brings supply into harmony with the new demand. The adjustment mechanism has cleared the shortage from the market and established a new equilibrium. A similar mechanism is believed to operate when there

9408-712: The market-clearing price is simply the maximum price at which all items can be sold. In a market where goods are produced and sold on an ongoing basis, the theory predicts that the market will move toward a price where the quantity supplied in a broad period of time will equal the quantity demanded. This might be measured over a week, month, or year to smooth out irregularities caused by manufacturing batches and delivery schedules; some sellers may maintain inventory buffers to ensure that products are always available for retail sale and to smooth out irregularities caused by manufacturing and delivery schedules, others employ Just-in-time manufacturing to increase profits in normal operations with

9520-502: The markets. This makes a curious departure from classical rationing, as during the 2001–2019 period, the rationing system was used in addition to, instead of as a replacement for regular markets. Cubans would be able to buy a certain amount of items at 'liberated' prices using ration coupons at a significantly reduced rate, while still being able to purchase more at regular market prices. This 'liberated' system persisted even during Cuba's period of economic growth and relative prosperity during

9632-455: The meat industry than in any other British business" except finance. The US was a meat importing country by 1926. Truncated lifespan as a result of intensive breeding allows more meat to be produced from fewer animals. The world cattle population was about 600 million in 1929, with 700 million sheep and goats and 300 million pigs. According to the Food and Agriculture Organization ,

9744-419: The meat's water-holding capacity, so the meat loses water or "weeps". In muscles that enter rigor in a contracted position, actin and myosin filaments overlap and cross-bond, resulting in meat that becomes tough when cooked. Over time, muscle proteins denature in varying degree, with the exception of the collagen and elastin of connective tissue , and rigor mortis resolves. These changes mean that meat

9856-425: The mid ventral axis, and the carcase is cut into wholesale pieces. The dressing and cutting sequence, long a province of manual labor, is being progressively automated. Under hygienic conditions and without other treatment, meat can be stored at above its freezing point (−1.5 °C) for about six weeks without spoilage, during which time it undergoes an aging process that increases its tenderness and flavor. During

9968-574: The nineteenth century, meat consumption in Britain was the highest in Europe, exceeded only by that in British colonies. In the 1830s consumption per head in Britain was about 34 kilograms (75 lb) a year, rising to 59 kilograms (130 lb) in 1912. In 1904, laborers consumed 39 kilograms (87 lb) a year while aristocrats ate 140 kilograms (300 lb). There were some 43,000 butcher's shops in Britain in 1910, with "possibly more money invested in

10080-431: The non-meat diets were analysed. About 3% of people followed vegan diets, where consumption of meat, eggs, and dairy are abstained from. About 5% of people followed vegetarian diets, where consumption of meat is abstained from, but egg and/or dairy consumption is not strictly restricted. About 3% of people followed pescetarian diets, where consumption of the meat of land animals is abstained from, fish meat and other seafood

10192-435: The one or the other procedure, depending on the methods employed. Stunning can be effected through asphyxiating the animals with carbon dioxide , shooting them with a gun or a captive bolt pistol , or shocking them with electric current. The exsanguination is accomplished by severing the carotid artery and the jugular vein in cattle and sheep, and the anterior vena cava in pigs. Draining as much blood as possible from

10304-459: The overall consumption for white meat has increased from the 20th to the 21st centuries. Poultry meat has increased by 76.6% per kilo per capita and pig meat by 19.7%. Bovine meat has decreased from 10.4 kg (22 lb 15 oz) per capita in 1990 to 9.6 kg (21 lb 3 oz) per capita in 2009. FAO analysis found that 357 million tonnes of meat were produced in 2021, 53% more than in 2000, with chicken meat representing more than half

10416-480: The period is the diary of Tanya Savicheva , who recorded the deaths of each member of her family during the siege. Rationing was also introduced to a number of British dominions, and colonies, with rationing of clothing imposed in Australia, from 12 June 1942, and certain foodstuffs from 1943. Canada rationed tea, coffee, sugar, butter and mechanical spares, between 1942 and 1947. The Cochin, Travancore and Madras states, of British India elected to ration grain between

10528-427: The process of calibration may change the underlying conditions that determine long-run equilibrium. There may be path dependence , as when a long depression changes the nature of the " full employment " period that follows. In the short run (and possibly in the long run), markets may find a temporary equilibrium at a price and quantity that does not correspond with the long-term market-clearing balance. For example, in

10640-608: The product nor the labor markets will experience an oversupply. If there is an oversupply of a product, its price will drop until buyers find it affordable, and in the case of a labor surplus, wages will decrease until employers can offer jobs to all willing workers. This mechanism ensures that every market tends towards equilibrium where supply meets demand. For instance, retailers may offer discounts on old cell phones and computers to sell them quickly and balance their inventory. The flexible pricing allows more people to buy these items, achieving market equilibrium. Meat Meat

10752-518: The rationed goods previously relied on government procurement or subsidies, as was the case in Israel . In the United Kingdom , rationing remained for years after the end of the war . In some respects it was more strict after the war than during it—two major foodstuffs that were never rationed during the war, bread and potatoes, were rationed after it (bread from 1946 to 1948, and potatoes for

10864-408: The rationing of organs for transplant even when funding is available. Censorship , libraries and museums can function to limit, moderate and share out approved cultural goods , experiences and exposures to the general public. Credit rationing describes a situation wherein a bank limits the supply of loans, even when it has enough funds to loan, and the provision of loans has not yet equaled

10976-400: The redistribution of scarce goods to demanders by suppliers, see non-monetary microeconomies . For smooth supply chain management the supplies may be rationed, which is sometimes referred to as the rationing game. The references mentioned here are a small sample of the literature about rationing inventories. A ration stamp , ration coupon , or ration card is a stamp or card issued by

11088-446: The risk of certain negative health outcomes including cancer, coronary heart disease , and diabetes . Meat production is a major contributor to environmental issues including global warming , pollution, and biodiversity loss , at every scale from local to global. Some people choose not to eat meat ( vegetarians and vegans ) for reasons such as ethics , environmental effects, health concerns, or religious dietary rules. However, meat

11200-672: The same litter and sex there are considerable differences in such parameters as the percentage of intramuscular fat. Adult mammalian muscle consists of roughly 75 percent water, 19 percent protein, 2.5 percent intramuscular fat, 1.2 percent carbohydrates and 2.3 percent other soluble substances. These include organic compounds, especially amino acids , and inorganic substances such as minerals. Muscle proteins are either soluble in water ( sarcoplasmic proteins, about 11.5 percent of total muscle mass) or in concentrated salt solutions ( myofibrillar proteins, about 5.5 percent of mass). There are several hundred sarcoplasmic proteins. Most of them –

11312-609: The smooth operation of this market-clearing mechanism as inevitable and inviolable, based mainly on belief in Say's law . But the Great Depression of the 1930s caused many economists, including John Maynard Keynes , to doubt their classical faith. If markets were supposed to clear, how could ruinously high unemployment rates persist for so many painful years? Was the market mechanism not supposed to eliminate such surpluses? In one interpretation , Keynes identified imperfections in

11424-525: The stamps. Alcohol rationing was eventually abolished in Sweden with the opening of state-owned Systembolaget liquor stores, where people could buy alcoholic beverages without limit. At other times, the ration can only be estimated by the beneficiary, such as a factory for which energy is to be rationed. In such cases, a mechanism is needed to discourage misreporting the needs or wants (i.e., to meet strategy-proofness). Suppose every participant reports an ideal ration. For so-called uniform rationing, each ration

11536-424: The stress of handling and transport. Meat producers may seek to improve the fertility of female animals through the administration of gonadotrophic or ovulation -inducing hormones . In pig production, sow infertility is a common problem – possibly due to excessive fatness. No methods currently exist to augment the fertility of male animals. Artificial insemination is now routinely used to produce animals of

11648-514: The tenderness of meat, although research on this is inconclusive, and have other effects on the composition of the muscle flesh. Where castration is used to improve control over male animals, its side effects can be counteracted by the administration of hormones. Myostatin has been used to produce muscle hypertrophy . Sedatives may be administered to animals to counteract stress factors and increase weight gain. The feeding of antibiotics to certain animals increases growth rates. This practice

11760-589: The theory of " efficiency wages ", a labor market can be in equilibrium above the market-clearing wage since each employer has the incentive to pay wages above market-clearing to motivate their employees. In this case, equilibrium wages (where there is no endogenous tendency for wages to change) would not be the same as market-clearing wages (where there is no classical unemployment ). In an unregulated and perfect market both labor market wages and product market prices are fully flexible and can change rapidly based on supply and demand. This flexibility ensures that neither

11872-425: The trade-off being greater disruption when irregularities do inevitably occur (eg. drastic market fluctuations, natural disasters, pandemics, power outages, etc...). The market clears when the price reaches a point where demand and supply are in equilibrium, enabling individuals to buy or sell whatever they desire at that cost. When supply and demand are equal, a market clearing takes place. The market must experience

11984-445: The wake of well-publicized health concerns associated with saturated fats in the 1980s, the fat content of United Kingdom beef, pork and lamb fell from 20–26 percent to 4–8 percent within a few decades, due to both selective breeding for leanness and changed methods of butchery. Methods of genetic engineering that could improve the meat-producing qualities of animals are becoming available. Meat production continues to be shaped by

12096-489: Was 2,800 calories a day, with additional calories for children, the elderly, and pregnant women. Following the 1952 Reparations Agreement between Israel and West Germany , and the subsequent influx of foreign capital, Israel's economy was bolstered, and in 1953, most restrictions were cancelled. In 1958, the list of rationed goods was narrowed to just eleven, and in 1959, it was narrowed to only jam, sugar, and coffee. Petroleum products were rationed in many countries following

12208-469: Was because everyone had access to a varied diet with enough nutrients. The first commodity to be controlled was petrol. On 8 January 1940, bacon, butter and sugar were rationed. This was followed by successive rationing schemes for meat, tea, jam, biscuits, breakfast cereals , cheese, eggs, lard, milk, and canned and dried fruit. Fresh vegetables and fruit were not rationed, but supplies were limited. Many people grew their own vegetables, greatly encouraged by

12320-463: Was handled by some 5,500 local ration boards of mostly volunteers. As a result of the gasoline rationing, all forms of automobile racing, including the Indianapolis 500 , were banned. All rationing in the United States ended in 1946. In the Soviet Union food was rationed from 1941 to 1947. In particular, daily bread rations in besieged Leningrad were initially set at 800 grams (28 ounces). By

12432-526: Was rationed on 27 November 1942 to 1 pound (0.45 kg) every five weeks. By the end of 1942, ration coupons were used for nine other items. Typewriters, gasoline, bicycles, footwear, silk, nylon, fuel oil, stoves, meat, lard, shortening and cooking oils, cheese, butter, margarine, processed foods (canned, bottled, and frozen), dried fruits, canned milk, firewood and coal, jams, jellies, and fruit butters were rationed by November 1943. The work of issuing ration books and exchanging used stamps for certificates

12544-571: Was set up to coordinate the worldwide supply of food to the Allies, with special attention to flows from the U.S. and Canada to Britain. American civilians first received ration books—War Ration Book Number One, or the "Sugar Book"—on 4 May 1942, through more than 100,000 school teachers, Parent-Teacher Associations , and other volunteers. Sugar was the first consumer commodity rationed. Bakeries, ice cream makers, and other commercial users received rations of about 70% of normal usage. Coffee

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