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118-744: The B47 is a surface transit line on Ralph Avenue in Brooklyn , New York City . Once a streetcar line , it is now part of the B47 bus route , operated by the New York City Transit Authority , Prior to 1995, it was the B78 route; the northern part of the route from St. Johns Place to Woodhull Hospital was part of the B40 line. The B47 was created as a result of a merger of the B40 and B78 on September 8, 2002. The southbound B47 begins at
236-605: A free port . To avoid accidents caused by fatigue, truckers have to adhere to strict rules for drive time and required rest periods. In the United States and Canada, these regulations are known as hours of service , and in the European Union as drivers working hours . One such regulation is the Hours of Work and Rest Periods (Road Transport) Convention, 1979 . Tachographs or Electronic on-board recorders record
354-400: A road use tax , is payable on some vehicles used on the public road. The definition of a road depends on the definition of a highway; there is no formal definition for a highway in the relevant Act. A 1984 ruling said "the land over which a public right of way exists is known as a highway; and although most highways have been made up into roads, and most easements of way exist over footpaths,
472-411: A single carriageway road is converted into dual carriageway by building a second separate carriageway alongside the first, it is usually referred to as duplication , twinning or doubling . The original carriageway is changed from two-way to become one-way, while the new carriageway is one-way in the opposite direction. In the same way as converting railway lines from single track to double track ,
590-457: A 25 to 50 millimeter hole through the pavement into the sub-base with a dry-bit roto-hammer . Next, a two-part epoxy is poured into the hole – dyed for visual clarity. Once the epoxy hardens, technicians drill through the hole. If a void is present, the epoxy will stick to the core and provide physical evidence. Common stabilization materials include pozzolan -cement grout and polyurethane. The requirements for slab stabilization are strength and
708-614: A May 2009 report by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) and TRIP – a national transportation research organization – driving on rough roads costs the average American motorist approximately $ 400 a year in extra vehicle operating costs. Drivers living in urban areas with populations more than 250,000 are paying upwards of $ 750 more annually because of accelerated vehicle deterioration, increased maintenance, additional fuel consumption , and tire wear caused by poor road conditions. When
826-690: A cloverleaf and trumpet interchange when it opened in 1937 and until the Second World War boasted the longest illuminated stretch of roadway built. A decade later, the first section of Highway 401 was opened, based on earlier designs. It has since become North America's busiest highway. The word freeway was first used in February 1930 by Edward M. Bassett . Bassett argued that roads should be classified into three basic types: highways, parkways , and freeways. In Bassett's zoning and property law -based system, abutting property owners have
944-607: A continental-sized network meant to connect every population center of 50,000 people or more. By 1956, most limited access highways in the eastern United States were toll roads. In that year, the Federal Aid Highway Act of 1956 was passed, funding non-toll roads with 90% federal dollars and 10% state match, giving little incentive for states to expand their turnpike system. Funding rules initially restricted collections of tolls on newly funded roadways, bridges, and tunnels. In some situations, expansion or rebuilding of
1062-531: A country, and may include federal standards. The United States uses FMCSA federal standards that include bridge law formulas . Many states, not on the national road system, use their own road and bridge standards. Enforcement scales may include portable scales, scale houses with low speed scales or weigh-in-motion (WIM) scales. The European Union uses the International Recommendation , OIML R 134-2 (2009). The process may involve
1180-532: A county. In 18th century West Africa , road transport throughout the Ashanti Empire was maintained via a network of well-kept roads that connected the Ashanti capital with territories within its jurisdiction and influence. After significant road construction undertaken by the kingdom of Dahomey , toll roads were established with the function of collecting yearly taxes based on the goods carried by
1298-419: A double-wheeled, steel roller to insert the rod to the desired depth. After inserting the backer rod, the sealant is placed into the joint. There are various materials to choose for this method including hot pour bituminous liquid, silicone and preformed compression seals. Careful design and construction of roads can increase road traffic safety and reduce the harm (deaths, injuries, and property damage) on
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#17328014962781416-433: A given lane and median barriers can prevent left turns and even U-turns. Early toll roads were usually built by private companies under a government franchise. They typically paralleled or replaced routes already with some volume of commerce, hoping the improved road would divert enough traffic to make the enterprise profitable. Plank roads were particularly attractive as they greatly reduced rolling resistance and mitigated
1534-779: A licence, which usually requires them to pass an exam (e.g. in the EU). They have to make sure they affix proper labels for the respective hazard(s) to their vehicle. Liquid goods are transported by road in tank trucks (in American English) or tanker lorries (in British English) (also road-tankers) or special tank containers for intermodal transport . For transportation of live animals special requirements have to be met in many countries to prevent cruelty to animals (see animal rights ). For fresh and frozen goods refrigerator trucks or reefers are used. Some loads are weighed at
1652-413: A major two-level (and at one point, three-level) roadway in the downtown area, are being rebuilt with a designed service life of 100 years. Virtually all roads require some form of maintenance before they come to the end of their service life. Pro-active agencies use pavement management techniques to continually monitor road conditions and schedule preventive maintenance treatments as needed to prolong
1770-427: A margin of side clearance, a refuge for incapacitated vehicles, an emergency lane, and parking space. They also serve a design purpose, and that is to prevent water from percolating into the soil near the main pavement's edge. Shoulder pavement is designed to a lower standard than the pavement in the traveled way and won't hold up as well to traffic, so driving on the shoulder is generally prohibited. Pavement technology
1888-570: A network of Royal Roads across their empire. With the advent of the Roman Empire , there was a need for armies to be able to travel quickly from one region to another, and the roads that existed were often muddy, which greatly delayed the movement of large masses of troops . To resolve this issue, the Romans built solid and lasting roads. The Roman roads used deep roadbeds of crushed stone as an underlying layer to ensure that they kept dry, as
2006-501: A particular section of roadway, and tolls were collected from users to finance the enterprise. The enterprise was usually named to indicate the locale of its roadway, often including the name of one of both of the termini. The word turnpike came into common use in the names of these roadways and companies, and is essentially used interchangeably with toll road in current terminology. In the United States , toll roads began with
2124-461: A rise of three inches from the edges to the center. Cambering and elevation of the road above the water table enabled rainwater to run off into ditches on either side. Size of stones was central to the McAdam's road building theory. The lower 200-millimetre (8 in) road thickness was restricted to stones no larger than 75 millimetres (3.0 in). The upper 50-millimetre (2 in) layer of stones
2242-428: A road as "a line of communication (travelled way) using a stabilized base other than rails or air strips open to public traffic, primarily for the use of road motor vehicles running on their own wheels", which includes "bridges, tunnels, supporting structures, junctions, crossings, interchanges, and toll roads, but not cycle paths". The Eurostat , ITF and UNECE Glossary for Transport Statistics Illustrated defines
2360-494: A road as a "Line of communication (traveled way) open to public traffic, primarily for the use of road motor vehicles, using a stabilized base other than rails or air strips. [...] Included are paved roads and other roads with a stabilized base, e.g. gravel roads. Roads also cover streets, bridges, tunnels, supporting structures, junctions, crossings and interchanges. Toll roads are also included. Excluded are dedicated cycle lanes." The 1968 Vienna Convention on Road Traffic defines
2478-510: A road as the entire surface of any way or street open to public traffic. In urban areas roads may diverge through a city or village and be named as streets, serving a dual function as urban space easement and route. Modern roads are normally smoothed, paved, or otherwise prepared to allow easy travel . Part 2, Division 1, clauses 11–13 of the National Transport Commission Regulations 2006 defines
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#17328014962782596-524: A road in Australia as 'an area that is open to or used by the public and is developed for, or has as one of its main uses, the driving or riding of motor vehicles.' Further, it defines a shoulder (typical an area of the road outside the edge line, or the curb) and a road-related area which includes green areas separating roads, areas designated for cyclists and areas generally accessible to the public for driving, riding or parking vehicles. In New Zealand,
2714-487: A scale house and low-speed scales or higher-speed WIM road or bridge scales with the goal of public safety, as well as road and bridge safety, according to the Bridges Act . Today, roadways are primarily asphalt or concrete . Both are based on McAdam's concept of stone aggregate in a binder, asphalt cement or Portland cement respectively. Asphalt is known as a flexible pavement , one which slowly will "flow" under
2832-541: A section of the London- Chester road between Foothill and Stony Stafford . The basic principle was that the trustees would manage resources from the several parishes through which the highway passed, augment this with tolls from users from outside the parishes and apply the whole to the maintenance of the main highway. This became the pattern for the turnpiking of a growing number of highways, sought by those who wished to improve flow of commerce through their part of
2950-708: A separation of the two industries. Movement along roads may be by bike , automobile , bus , truck , or by animal such as horse or oxen . Standard networks of roads were adopted by Romans , Persians , Aztec , and other early empires , and may be regarded as a feature of empires. Cargo may be transported by trucking companies , while passengers may be transported via mass transit . Commonly defined features of modern roads include defined lanes and signage . Various classes of road exist, from two-lane local roads with at-grade intersections to controlled-access highways with all cross traffic grade-separated. The nature of road transportation of goods depends on, apart from
3068-645: A toll facility using Interstate Highway Program funding resulted in the removal of existing tolls. This occurred in Virginia on Interstate 64 at the Hampton Roads Bridge-Tunnel when a second parallel roadway to the regional 1958 bridge-tunnel was completed in 1976. Since the completion of the initial portion of the Interstate Highway System, regulations were changed, and portions of toll facilities have been added to
3186-432: Is 40 years for new bitumen and concrete pavement. Maintenance is considered in the whole life cost of the road with service at 10, 20 and 30-year milestones. Roads can be and are designed for a variety of lives (8-, 15-, 30-, and 60-year designs). When pavement lasts longer than its intended life, it may have been overbuilt, and the original costs may have been too high. When a pavement fails before its intended design life,
3304-433: Is a non-destructive method of solving this problem and is usually employed with other concrete pavement restoration methods including patching and diamond grinding. The technique restores support to concrete slabs by filing small voids that develop underneath the concrete slab at joints, cracks or the pavement edge. The process consists of pumping a cementitious grout or polyurethane mixture through holes drilled through
3422-487: Is also common. Some road fixtures such as road signs and fire hydrants are designed to collapse on impact. Light poles are designed to break at the base rather than violently stop a car that hits them. Highway authorities may also remove larger trees from the immediate vicinity of the road. During heavy rains, if the elevation of the road surface is not higher than the surrounding landscape, it may result in flooding. Speed limits can improve road traffic safety and reduce
3540-485: Is another common procedure used to locate voids. It is recommended to do this testing at night as during cooler temperatures, joints open, aggregate interlock diminishes and load deflections are at their highest. Ground penetrating radar pulses electromagnetic waves into the pavement and measures and graphically displays the reflected signal. This can reveal voids and other defects. The epoxy/core test, detects voids by visual and mechanical methods. It consists of drilling
3658-418: Is discovered it is removed, moisture content is managed and replaced with standard fill compacted to meet the design requirements (generally 90–95% relative compaction). Blasting is not frequently used to excavate the roadbed as the intact rock structure forms an ideal road base. When a depression must be filled to come up to the road grade the native bed is compacted after the topsoil has been removed. The fill
B47 (New York City bus) - Misplaced Pages Continue
3776-451: Is made by the "compacted layer method" where a layer of fill is spread then compacted to specifications, under saturated conditions. The process is repeated until the desired grade is reached. General fill material should be free of organics , meet minimum California bearing ratio (CBR) results and have a low plasticity index . The lower fill generally comprises sand or a sand-rich mixture with fine gravel, which acts as an inhibitor to
3894-535: Is orderly and safe. Two hundred years ago these devices were signs, nearly all informal. In the late 19th century signals began to appear in the biggest cities at a few highly congested intersections. They were manually operated, and consisted of semaphores, flags or paddles , or in some cases colored electric lights, all modeled on railroad signals. In the 20th century signals were automated, at first with electromechanical devices and later with computers. Signals can be quite sophisticated: with vehicle sensors embedded in
4012-571: Is primarily due to environmental effects such as frost heaves , thermal cracking and oxidation often contribute, however accumulated damage from vehicles also contributes. According to a series of experiments carried out in the late 1950s, called the AASHO Road Test , it was empirically determined that the effective damage done to the road is roughly proportional to the fourth power of axle weight . A typical tractor-trailer weighing 80,000 pounds (36.287 t ) with 8,000 pounds (3.629 t) on
4130-522: Is some ambiguity between the terms highway and road . For the purposes of the English law , Highways Act 1980 , which covers England and Wales but not Scotland or Northern Ireland , road is "any length of highway or of any other road to which the public has access, and includes bridges over which a road passes". This includes footpaths, bridleways and cycle tracks, and also road and driveways on private land and many car parks. Vehicle Excise Duty ,
4248-410: Is still evolving, albeit in not easily noticed increments. For instance, chemical additives in the pavement mix make the pavement more weather resistant, grooving and other surface treatments improve resistance to skidding and hydroplaning , and joint seals which were once tar are now made of low maintenance neoprene. Nearly all roadways are built with devices meant to control traffic . Most notable to
4366-410: Is taken to preserve reference Benchmarks Roads are designed and built for primary use by vehicular and pedestrian traffic. Storm drainage and environmental considerations are a major concern. Erosion and sediment controls are constructed to prevent detrimental effects. Drainage lines are laid with sealed joints in the road easement with runoff coefficients and characteristics adequate for
4484-476: Is the layer or successive layers of stone, gravel and sand supporting the pavement. It is needed to spread out the slab load bearing on the underlying soil and to conduct away any water getting under the slabs. Water will undermine a pavement over time, so much of pavement and pavement joint design are meant to minimize the amount of water getting and staying under the slabs. Shoulders are also an integral part of highway design. They are multipurpose; they can provide
4602-546: Is the native material underneath a constructed road. Road construction requires the creation of an engineered continuous right-of-way or roadbed , overcoming geographic obstacles and having grades low enough to permit vehicle or foot travel , and may be required to meet standards set by law or official guidelines. The process is often begun with the removal of earth and rock by digging or blasting, construction of embankments , bridges and tunnels , and removal of vegetation (this may involve deforestation ) and followed by
4720-661: Is to serve as public spaces, the main function of roads is transportation. There are many types of roads , including parkways , avenues , controlled-access highways (freeways, motorways, and expressways), tollways , interstates , highways , thoroughfares , and local roads. The primary features of roads include lanes , sidewalks (pavement), roadways (carriageways), medians , shoulders , verges , bike paths (cycle paths), and shared-use paths . Historically many roads were simply recognizable routes without any formal construction or some maintenance. The Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) defines
4838-756: Is transported by road in horse-drawn carriages, donkey carts or other non-motorized mode. Delivery services are sometimes considered a separate category from cargo transport. In many places, fast food is transported on roads by various types of vehicles . For inner city delivery of small packages and documents bike couriers are quite common. People are transported on roads. Special modes of individual transport by road such as cycle rickshaws may also be locally available. There are also specialist modes of road transport for particular situations, such as ambulances. The first methods of road transport were horses , oxen or even humans carrying goods over dirt tracks that often followed game trail . The Persians later built
B47 (New York City bus) - Misplaced Pages Continue
4956-559: Is usually stripped and stockpiled nearby for rehabilitation of newly constructed embankments along the road. Stumps and roots are removed and holes filled as required before the earthwork begins. Final rehabilitation after road construction is completed will include seeding, planting, watering and other activities to reinstate the area to be consistent with the untouched surrounding areas. Processes during earthwork include excavation, removal of material to spoil, filling, compacting, construction and trimming. If rock or other unsuitable material
5074-563: The Bonn-Cologne Autobahn began in 1929 and was opened in 1932 by Konrad Adenauer , then the mayor of Cologne . In Canada, the first precursor with semi-controlled access was The Middle Road between Hamilton and Toronto , which featured a median divider between opposing traffic flow, as well as the nation's first cloverleaf interchange . This highway developed into the Queen Elizabeth Way , which featured
5192-730: The Lancaster Turnpike in the 1790s, within Pennsylvania , connecting Philadelphia and Lancaster . In the state of New York , the Great Western Turnpike was started in Albany in 1799 and eventually extended, by several alternate routes, to near what is now Syracuse, New York . Toll roads peaked in the mid 19th century, and by the turn of the twentieth century most toll roads were taken over by state highway departments. The demise of this early toll road era
5310-642: The Pennsylvania Turnpike , toll roads saw a resurgence, this time to fund limited access highways. In the late 1940s and early 1950s, after World War II interrupted the evolution of the highway, the US resumed building toll roads. They were to still higher standards and one road, the New York State Thruway , had standards that became the prototype for the U.S. Interstate Highway System . Several other major toll-roads which connected with
5428-959: The Williamsburg Bridge Plaza Bus Terminal in Williamsburg and the Liberty Avenue subway station in East New York . The B78 replaced the southern portion of the Ralph Avenue Line, and traveled from the Sutter Avenue–Rutland Road subway station in Brownsville to the Kings Plaza Shopping Center. The two routes did not intersect. The B40 and B78 routes were discontinued September 8, 2002, and
5546-731: The Woodhull Medical Center in Bedford–Stuyvesant , near the intersection of Marcus Garvey Boulevard and Ellery Street. It travels southeast along Broadway , then turns right on Ralph Avenue, heading south on Ralph Avenue. Since Ralph Avenue is split into two sections in Brownsville , the B47 makes a series of zigzag turns in the neighborhood, first turning right at East New York Avenue, then left at East 98th Street, right at Rutland Road, left at Rockaway Parkway , right at Clarkson Avenue, and left at Remsen Avenue. The B47 bears to
5664-406: The land zoning and storm water system. Drainage systems must be capable of carrying the ultimate design flow from the upstream catchment with approval for the outfall from the appropriate authority to a watercourse , creek , river or the sea for drainage discharge. A borrow pit (source for obtaining fill, gravel, and rock) and a water source should be located near or in reasonable distance to
5782-541: The 18th century. Starting in the early 18th century, the British Parliament began to pass a series of acts that gave the local justices powers to erect toll-gates on the roads, in exchange for professional upkeep. The toll-gate erected at Wade's Mill became the first effective toll-gate in England. The first scheme that had trustees who were not justices was established through a turnpike act in 1707, for
5900-449: The 1920s limited access highways appeared. Their main characteristics were dual roadways with access points limited to (but not always) grade-separated interchanges. Their dual roadways allowed high volumes of traffic , the need for no or few traffic lights along with relatively gentle grades and curves allowed higher speeds. The first limited access highways were Parkways , so called because of their often park-like landscaping and, in
6018-553: The French road engineer Pierre-Marie-Jérôme Trésaguet . The first professional road builder to emerge during the Industrial Revolution was John Metcalf , who constructed about 180 miles (290 km) of turnpike road , mainly in the north of England, from 1765. He believed a good road should have good foundations, be well drained and have a smooth convex surface to allow rainwater to drain quickly into ditches at
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#17328014962786136-776: The Pennsylvania Turnpike were established before the creation of the Interstate Highway System. These were the Indiana Toll Road , Ohio Turnpike , and New Jersey Turnpike . In the United States, beginning in 1956, Dwight D. Eisenhower National System of Interstate and Defense Highways, commonly called the Interstate Highway System was built. It uses 12 foot (3.65m) lanes, wide medians , a maximum of 4% grade , and full access control, though many sections don't meet these standards due to older construction or constraints. This system created
6254-632: The Ralph Avenue portion of the B40 merged with the B78 at that time to form the current B47. On December 1, 2022, the MTA released a draft redesign of the Brooklyn bus network. As part of the redesign, B47 service would be rerouted in East Flatbush to use Kings Highway and East 98th Street instead of Rockaway Parkway and Clarkson Avenue. Closely spaced stops would also be eliminated. Until 2024,
6372-527: The United States and Australia in the 1820s and in Europe in the 1830s and 1840s. Macadam roads were adequate for use by horses and carriages or coaches, but they were very dusty and subject to erosion with heavy rain. The Good Roads Movement occurred in the United States between the late 1870s and the 1920s. Advocates for improved roads led by bicyclists turned local agitation into a national political movement. Outside cities, roads were dirt or gravel; mud in
6490-552: The Williamsburg Bridge Trolley Terminal. The former ran via 98th Street, Ralph Avenue, and Broadway, while the latter ran via Rockaway Avenue, Ralph Avenue, and Broadway. Ralph Avenue service was discontinued on November 1, 1943. Ralph and Rockaway Avenues Line service was replaced by B40 bus service on May 27, 1951. The B40 bus replaced the northern portion of the Ralph Avenue Line, and it traveled on Broadway, Ralph Avenue, and Liberty Avenue between
6608-422: The ability to flow into or expand to fill small voids. Colloidal mixing equipment is necessary to use the pozzolan-cement grouts. The contractor must place the grout using a positive-displacement injection pump or a non-pulsing progressive cavity pump. A drill is also necessary but it must produce a clean hole with no surface spalling or breakouts. The injection devices must include a grout packer capable of sealing
6726-521: The average US motorist pays about $ 335/year. In contrast, the average motorist pays about $ 171/year in road maintenance taxes (based on 600 gallons/year and $ 0.285/gallon tax). Distress and serviceability loss on concrete roads can be caused by loss of support due to voids beneath the concrete pavement slabs. The voids usually occur near cracks or joints due to surface water infiltration . The most common causes of voids are pumping, consolidation, subgrade failure and bridge approach failure. Slab stabilization
6844-566: The building of roads by improving the selection of stone based on thickness, taking into account traffic, alignment and slopes. During his later years, Telford was responsible for rebuilding sections of the London to Holyhead road , a task completed by his assistant of ten years, John MacNeill . It was another Scottish engineer, John Loudon McAdam , who designed the first modern roads. He developed an inexpensive paving material of soil and stone aggregate (known as macadam ). His road building method
6962-603: The client – or through freight carriers or shipping agents. Some big companies (e.g. grocery store chains) operate their own internal trucking operations. The market size for general freight trucking was nearly $ 125 billion in 2010. In the U.S. many truckers own their truck (rig), and are known as owner-operators . Some road transportation is done on regular routes or for only one consignee per run ( full truckload ), while others transport goods from many different loading stations/shippers to various consignees per run ( less-than-truckload ). On some long runs only cargo for one leg of
7080-551: The definition of a road is broad in common law where the statutory definition includes areas the public has access to, by right or not. Beaches, publicly accessible car parks and yards (even if privately owned), river beds, road shoulders (verges), wharves and bridges are included. However, the definition of a road for insurance purposes may be restricted to reduce risk. In the United Kingdom The Highway Code details rules for "road users", but there
7198-420: The degree of development of the local infrastructure, the distance the goods are transported by road, the weight and volume of an individual shipment, and the type of goods transported. For short distances and light small shipments, a van or pickup truck may be used. For large shipments even if less than a full truckload a truck is more appropriate. (Also see Trucking and Hauling below). In some countries cargo
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#17328014962787316-465: The design structural capacity, stop erosion or eliminate faulting. It does, however, restore the slab support, therefore, decreasing deflections under the load. Stabilization should only be performed at joints and cracks where the loss of support exists. Visual inspection is the simplest manner to find voids. Signs that repair is needed are transverse joint faulting, corner breaks and shoulder drop off and lines at or near joints and cracks. Deflection testing
7434-528: The efforts of individual surveyors such as John Metcalf in Yorkshire in the 1760s. British turnpike builders began to realize the importance of selecting clean stones for surfacing while excluding vegetable material and clay, resulting in more durable roads. By the late 18th and early 19th centuries, new methods of highway construction had been pioneered by the work of three British engineers, John Metcalf , Thomas Telford and John Loudon McAdam , and by
7552-460: The federal government's Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices ). Modern controlled-access highways originated in the early 1920s in response to the rapidly increasing use of the automobile , the demand for faster movement between cities and as a consequence of improvements in paving processes, techniques and materials. These original high-speed roads were referred to as " dual highways " and have been modernized and are still in use today. Italy
7670-452: The first half of the 20th century. The Long Island Motor Parkway on Long Island , New York , opened in 1908 as a private venture, was the world's first limited-access roadway. It included many modern features, including banked turns , guard rails and reinforced concrete tarmac . Traffic could turn left between the parkway and connectors, crossing oncoming traffic, so it was not a controlled-access highway (or "freeway" as later defined by
7788-441: The first pathways were the trails made by animals has not been universally accepted; in many cases animals do not follow constant paths. Some believe that some roads originated from following animal trails. The Icknield Way may exemplify this type of road origination, where human and animal both selected the same natural line. By about 10,000 BC human travelers used rough roads/pathways. In transport engineering , subgrade
7906-416: The functional condition of the road while reducing the need for routing maintenance, leading to extended service life without increasing structural capacity. Older concrete pavements that develop faults can be repaired with a dowel bar retrofit , in which slots are cut in the pavement at each joint, and dowel bars are placed in the slots, which are then filled with concrete patching material. This can extend
8024-464: The growth of plants or other vegetable matter. The compacted fill also serves as lower-stratum drainage. Select second fill ( sieved ) should be composed of gravel , decomposed rock or broken rock below a specified particle size and be free of large lumps of clay . Sand clay fill may also be used. The roadbed must be "proof rolled" after each layer of fill is compacted. If a roller passes over an area without creating visible deformation or spring
8142-404: The highway system from traffic collisions. On neighborhood roads traffic calming , safety barriers , pedestrian crossings and cycle lanes can help protect pedestrians, cyclists, and drivers. Lane markers in some countries and states are marked with Cat's eyes or Botts dots. Botts dots are not used where it is icy in the winter, because frost and snowplows can break the glue that holds them to
8260-580: The hole. The injection device must also have a return hose or a fast-control reverse switch, in case workers detect slab movement on the uplift gauge. The uplift beam helps to monitor the slab deflection and has to have sensitive dial gauges. Also called joint and crack repair, this method's purpose is to minimize infiltration of surface water and incompressible material into the joint system. Joint sealants are also used to reduce dowel bar corrosion in concrete pavement restoration techniques. Successful resealing consists of old sealant removal, shaping and cleaning
8378-404: The laying of pavement material. A variety of road building equipment is employed in road building. After design, approval , planning , legal, and environmental considerations have been addressed alignment of the road is set out by a surveyor . The radii and gradient are designed and staked out to best suit the natural ground levels and minimize the amount of cut and fill. Great care
8496-482: The life of the concrete pavement for 15 years. Failure to maintain roads properly can create significant costs to society. A 2009 report released by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials estimated that about 50% of the roads in the US are in bad condition, with urban areas worse. The report estimates that urban drivers pay an average of $ 746/year on vehicle repairs while
8614-609: The lifespan of their roads. Technically advanced agencies monitor the road network surface condition with sophisticated equipment such as laser/inertial profilometers . These measurements include road curvature , cross slope , asperity , roughness , rutting and texture . Software algorithms use this data to recommend maintenance or new construction. Maintenance treatments for asphalt concrete generally include thin asphalt overlays, crack sealing, surface rejuvenating, fog sealing, micro milling or diamond grinding and surface treatments . Thin surfacing preserves, protects and improves
8732-445: The locality. In the United States standardization was first taken at the state level, and late in the century at the federal level. Each country has a Manual of Uniform Traffic Control Devices (MUTCD) and there are efforts to blend them into a worldwide standard. Besides signals, signs, and markings, other forms of traffic control are designed and built into the roadway. For instance, curbs and rumble strips can be used to keep traffic in
8850-412: The macadam with a mixture of tar and sand. Tar-grouted macadam was in use well before 1900 and involved scarifying the surface of an existing macadam pavement, spreading tar, and re-compacting. Although the use of tar in road construction was known in the 19th century, it was little used and was not introduced on a large scale until the motorcar arrived on the scene in the early 20th century. Modern tarmac
8968-494: The metropolitan New York City area, they connected the region's system of parks. When the German autobahns built in the 1930s introduced higher design standards and speeds, road planners and road-builders in the United States started developing and building toll roads to similar high standards. The Pennsylvania Turnpike , which largely followed the path of a partially built railroad, was the first, opening in 1940. After 1940 with
9086-428: The motorist are those meant to communicate directly with the driver. Broadly, these fall into three categories: signs, signals or pavement markings. They help the driver navigate; they assign the right-of-way at intersections; they indicate laws such as speed limits and parking regulations; they advise of potential hazards; they indicate passing and no passing zones; and otherwise deliver information and to assure traffic
9204-515: The new carriageway is not always constructed directly alongside the existing carriageway. Roads that are intended for use by a particular mode of transport can be reallocated for another mode of transport, i.e. by using traffic signs . For instance, in the ongoing road space reallocation effort, some roads (particularly in city centers) which are intended for use by cars are increasingly being repurposed for cycling and/or walking . Like all structures, roads deteriorate over time. Deterioration
9322-485: The newly invented bicycles could benefit from good country roads. Later on, they did not hold up to higher-speed motor vehicle use. Methods to stabilise macadam roads with tar date back to at least 1834 when John Henry Cassell, operating from Cassell's Patent Lava Stone Works in Millwall , patented "Pitch Macadam". This method involved spreading tar on the subgrade , placing a typical macadam layer, and finally sealing
9440-477: The number of road traffic casualties from traffic collisions . In their World report on road traffic injury prevention report, the World Health Organization (WHO) identify speed control as one of various interventions likely to contribute to a reduction in road casualties. Road conditions are the collection of factors describing the ease of driving on a particular stretch of road, or on
9558-506: The owner may have excessive repair and rehabilitation costs. Some asphalt pavements are designed as perpetual pavements with an expected structural life in excess of 50 years. Many asphalt pavements built over 35 years ago, despite not being specifically designed as a perpetual pavement, have remained in good condition long past their design life. Many concrete pavements built since the 1950s have significantly outlived their intended design lives. Some roads like Chicago 's Wacker Drive ,
9676-418: The pavement performance, reduce construction costs and decrease maintenance. The completed roadway is finished by paving or left with a gravel or other natural surface. The type of road surface is dependent on economic factors and expected usage. Safety improvements such as traffic signs , crash barriers , raised pavement markers and other forms of road surface marking are installed. According to
9794-426: The pavement, the signal can control and choreograph the turning movements of heavy traffic in the most complex of intersections. In the 1920s traffic engineers learned how to coordinate signals along a thoroughfare to increase its speeds and volumes. In the 1980s, with computers, similar coordination of whole networks became possible. In the 1920s pavement markings were introduced. Initially they were used to indicate
9912-468: The people of Dahomey and their occupation. The Royal Road was built in the late 18th century by King Kpengla which stretched from Abomey through Cana up to Ouidah . The quality of early turnpike roads was varied. Although turnpiking did result in some improvement to each highway, the technologies used to deal with geological features, drainage, and the effects of weather were all in their infancy. Road construction improved slowly, initially through
10030-500: The point of origin and the driver is responsible for ensuring weights conform to maximum allowed standards. This may involve using on-board weight gauges (load pressure gauges), knowing the empty weight of the transport vehicle and the weight of the load, or using a commercial weight scale. In route weigh stations check that gross vehicle weights do not exceed the maximum weight for that particular jurisdiction and will include individual axle weights. This varies by country, states within
10148-440: The pounding of traffic. Concrete is a rigid pavement, which can take heavier loads but is more expensive and requires more carefully prepared subbase. So, generally, major roads are concrete and local roads are asphalt. Concrete roads are often covered with a thin layer of asphalt to create a wearing surface. Modern pavements are designed for heavier vehicle loads and faster speeds, requiring thicker slabs and deeper subbase. Subbase
10266-513: The presence or absence of a made road has nothing to do with the distinction. Another legal view is that while a highway historically included footpaths , bridleways , driftways, etc., it can now be used to mean those ways that allow the movement of motor vehicles , and the term rights of way can be used to cover the wider usage. In the United States, laws distinguish between public roads , which are open to public use, and private roads , which are privately controlled. The assertion that
10384-419: The problem of getting mired in mud. Another improvement, better grading to lessen the steepness of the worst stretches, allowed draft animals to haul heavier loads. A toll road in the United States is often called a turnpike . The term turnpike probably originated from the gate, often a simple pike, which blocked passage until the fare was paid at a toll house (or toll booth in current terminology). When
10502-418: The reservoir, installing the backer rod and installing the sealant. Sawing, manual removal, plowing and cutting are methods used to remove the old sealant. Saws are used to shape the reservoir. When cleaning the reservoir, no dust, dirt or traces of old sealant should remain. Thus, it is recommended to water wash, sand-blast and then air blow to remove any sand, dirt or dust. The backer rod installation requires
10620-605: The right where Ralph Avenue resumes. The bus then continues south along Ralph Avenue before bearing left at Mill Avenue. It next turns right at Avenue U where it continues until its terminus at East 54th Street, in front of the Kings Plaza Shopping Center in Mill Basin . The northbound B47 begins at East 54th Street, then continues northeast on Avenue U, turns left onto Mill Avenue, and bears right on Ralph Avenue. The B47 bears left at Remsen Avenue when
10738-655: The rights of light , air and access to highways but to not parkways and freeways; the latter two are distinguished in that the purpose of a parkway is recreation, while the purpose of a freeway is movement. Thus as originally conceived, a freeway is a strip of public land devoted to movement to which abutting property owners do not have rights of light, air or access. Trucking companies (in American English terminology) or haulage companies / hauliers (in British English) accept cargo for road transport. Truck drivers operate either independently – working directly for
10856-494: The road conditions". Specific aspects of road conditions can be of particular importance for particular purposes. For example, for autonomous vehicles such as self-driving cars , significant road conditions can include "shadowing and lighting changes, road surface texture changes, and road markings consisting of circular reflectors, dashed lines, and solid lines". Various government agencies and private entities, including local news services, track and report on road conditions to
10974-399: The road construction area may be marked for retention. These protected trees should not have the topsoil within the area of the tree's drip line removed and the area should be kept clear of construction material and equipment. Compensation or replacement may be required if a protected tree is damaged. Much of the vegetation may be mulched and put aside for use during reinstatement. The topsoil
11092-512: The road construction site. Approval from local authorities may be required to draw water or for working (crushing and screening) of materials for construction needs. The topsoil and vegetation is removed from the borrow pit and stockpiled for subsequent rehabilitation of the extraction area. Side slopes in the excavation area not steeper than one vertical to two horizontal for safety reasons. Old road surfaces, fences, and buildings may need to be removed before construction can begin. Trees in
11210-493: The road's centerline. Soon after they were coded with information to aid motorists in passing safely. Later, with multi-lane roads they were used to define lanes . Other uses, such as indicating permitted turning movements and pedestrian crossings soon followed. In the 20th century traffic control devices were standardized. Before then every locality decided on what its devices would look like and where they would be applied. This could be confusing, especially to traffic from outside
11328-473: The road, although they can be embedded in short, shallow trenches carved in the roadway, as is done in the mountainous regions of California. For major roads risk can be reduced by providing limited access from properties and local roads, grade separated junctions and median dividers between opposite-direction traffic to reduce the likelihood of head-on collisions. The placement of energy attenuation devices (e.g. guardrails, wide grassy areas, sand barrels)
11446-404: The roads of a particular locality, including the quality of the pavement surface , potholes , road markings, and weather . It has been reported that "[p]roblems of transportation participants and road conditions are the main factors that lead to road traffic accidents". It has further been specifically noted that "weather conditions and road conditions are interlinked as weather conditions affect
11564-439: The route (to) is known when the cargo is loaded. Truckers may have to wait at the destination for a backhaul . A bill of lading issued by the shipper provides the basic document for road freight. On cross- border transportation the trucker will present the cargo and documentation provided by the shipper to customs for inspection (for EC see also Schengen Agreement ). This also applies to shipments that are transported out of
11682-575: The school trippers running from Roy H. Mann Intermediate School to the Sutter Avenue-Rutland Road station were based out of the Flatbush Depot . Surface transit Road transport or road transportation is a type of transport using roads . Transport on roads can be roughly grouped into the transportation of goods and transportation of people. In many countries licensing requirements and safety regulations ensure
11800-406: The section is deemed to comply. Geosynthetics such as geotextiles , geogrids , and geocells are frequently used in the various pavement layers to improve road quality. These materials and methods are used in low-traffic private roadways as well as public roads and highways. Geosynthetics perform four main functions in roads: separation, reinforcement, filtration, and drainage; which increase
11918-509: The side. He understood the importance of good drainage, knowing it was rain that caused most problems on the roads. Pierre-Marie-Jérôme Trésaguet established the first scientific approach to road building in France at the same time. He wrote a memorandum on his method in 1775, which became general practice in France. It involved a layer of large rocks, covered by a layer of smaller gravel. The lower layer improved on Roman practice in that it
12036-437: The slab. The grout can fill small voids beneath the slab and/or sub-base. The grout also displaces free water and helps keep water from saturating and weakening support under the joints and slab edge after stabilization is complete. The three steps for this method after finding the voids are locating and drilling holes, grout injection and post-testing the stabilized slabs. Slab stabilization does not correct depressions, increase
12154-401: The southern section of Ralph Avenue ends. The B47 turns right onto Clarkson Avenue, left onto East 98th Street, and right on East New York Avenue. The bus turns left at Ralph Avenue, where it continues until reaching the northern end of Ralph Avenue at Broadway. The B47 turns left then continues northwest along Broadway until reaching Woodhull Hospital, where it terminates. The Ralph Avenue Line
12272-483: The steer axle and 36,000 pounds (16.329 t) on both of the tandem axle groups is expected to do 7,800 times more damage than a passenger vehicle with 2,000 pounds (0.907 t) on each axle. Potholes on roads are caused by rain damage and vehicle braking or related construction work. Pavements are designed for an expected service life or design life . In some parts of the United Kingdom the standard design life
12390-503: The sub-base. The surveyor and engineer Thomas Telford also made substantial advances in the engineering of new roads and the construction of bridges. His method of road building involved the digging of a large trench in which a foundation of heavy rock was set. He also designed his roads so that they sloped downwards from the centre, allowing drainage to take place, a major improvement on the work of Trésaguet. The surface of his roads consisted of broken stone. He also improved on methods for
12508-594: The system. Some states are again looking at toll financing for new roads and maintenance, to supplement limited federal funding. In some areas, new road projects have been completed with public-private partnerships funded by tolls, such as the Pocahontas Parkway (I-895) near Richmond, Virginia . Roads A road is a thoroughfare for the conveyance of traffic that mostly has an improved surface for use by vehicles (motorized and non-motorized) and pedestrians. Unlike streets , whose primary function
12626-465: The times the vehicle is in motion and stopped. Some companies use two drivers per truck to ensure uninterrupted transportation; with one driver resting or sleeping in a bunk in the back of the cab while the other is driving. Truck drivers often need special licenses to drive, known in the U.S. as a commercial driver's license . In the U.K. a large goods vehicle licence is required. For transport of hazardous materials (see dangerous goods ) truckers need
12744-473: The toll was paid the pike, which was mounted on a swivel, was turned to allow the vehicle to pass. Tolls were usually based on the type of cargo being transported, not the type of vehicle. The practice of selecting routes so as to avoid tolls is called shunpiking . This may be simply to avoid the expense, as a form of economic protest (or boycott ), or simply to seek a road less traveled as a bucolic interlude. Companies were formed to build, improve, and maintain
12862-533: The water would flow out from the crushed stone, instead of becoming mud in clay soils. The Islamic Caliphate later built tar-paved roads in Baghdad . As states developed and became richer, especially with the Renaissance , new roads and bridges began to be built, often based on Roman designs. Although there were attempts to rediscover Roman methods, there was little useful innovation in road building before
12980-461: The winter and dust in the summer. Early organizers cited Europe where road construction and maintenance was supported by national and local governments. In its early years, the main goal of the movement was education for road building in rural areas between cities and to help rural populations gain the social and economic benefits enjoyed by cities where citizens benefited from railroads, trolleys and paved streets. Even more than traditional vehicles,
13098-413: Was based on the understanding that the purpose of this layer (the sub-base or base course ) is to transfer the weight of the road and its traffic to the ground, while protecting the ground from deformation by spreading the weight evenly. Therefore, the sub-base did not have to be a self-supporting structure. The upper running surface provided a smooth surface for vehicles while protecting the large stones of
13216-446: Was due to the rise of canals and railroads, which were more efficient (and thus cheaper) in moving freight over long distances. Roads wouldn't again be competitive with rails and barges until the first half of the 20th century when the internal combustion engine replaces draft animals as the source of motive power. With the development, mass production, and popular embrace of the automobile, faster and higher capacity roads were needed. In
13334-415: Was limited to 20 millimetres (1 in) size and stones were checked by supervisors who carried scales. A workman could check the stone size himself by seeing if the stone would fit into his mouth. The importance of the 20 mm stone size was that the stones needed to be much smaller than the 100 mm width of the iron carriage tyres that traveled on the road. Macadam roads were being built widely in
13452-641: Was one of a number of branch lines of the Brooklyn, Queens County and Suburban Railroad 's Broadway Line. Service on the line used to originate at the Williamsburg Bridge Trolley Terminal on the Lower East Side of Manhattan, but was cut back to Washington Plaza in Brooklyn in 1949. The Ralph Avenue corridor featured two streetcars, the Ralph Avenue Line and the Ralph and Rockaway Avenues Line, both of which originated at
13570-502: Was patented by British civil engineer Edgar Purnell Hooley , who noticed that spilled tar on the roadway kept the dust down and created a smooth surface. He took out a patent in 1901 for tarmac. Hooley's 1901 patent involved mechanically mixing tar and aggregate prior to lay-down and then compacting the mixture with a steamroller . The tar was modified by adding small amounts of Portland cement , resin , and pitch . The first version of modern controlled-access highways evolved during
13688-466: Was simpler than Telford's, yet more effective at protecting roadways: he discovered that massive foundations of rock upon rock were unnecessary, and asserted that native soil alone would support the road and traffic upon it, as long as it was covered by a road crust that would protect the soil underneath from water and wear. Also unlike Telford and other road builders, McAdam laid his roads as level as possible. His 30-foot-wide (9 m) road required only
13806-543: Was the first country in the world to build controlled-access highways reserved for fast traffic and for motor vehicles only. The Autostrada dei Laghi ("Lakes Motorway"), the first built in the world, connecting Milan to Lake Como and Lake Maggiore , and now parts of the A8 and A9 motorways, was devised by Piero Puricelli and was inaugurated in 1924. This motorway, called autostrada , contained only one lane in each direction and no interchanges. The Bronx River Parkway
13924-643: Was the first road in North America to utilize a median strip to separate the opposing lanes, to be constructed through a park and where intersecting streets crossed over bridges. The Southern State Parkway opened in 1927, while the Long Island Motor Parkway was closed in 1937 and replaced by the Northern State Parkway (opened 1931) and the contiguous Grand Central Parkway (opened 1936). In Germany, construction of
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