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49-559: Procopius describes at length the ramparts and buildings erected there by Justinian . The walls of Resafa, which are still well preserved, are over 1600 feet in length and about 1000 feet in width; round or square towers were erected about every hundred feet; there are also ruins of a church with three apses. Resafa corresponds to the Akkadian Raṣappa and the Biblical Rezeph ( Septuagint ; Koinē Greek : Ράφες ), where it

98-546: A Council of Antioch . Sergiopolis obtained the title of metropolis from Emperor Anastasius I . With five suffragan sees, it figures in the Notitia episcopatuum of Antioch in the sixth century. A bishop named Sergius or George was an envoy of Justinian to the Lakhmids around 524. At the fifth general council ( Second Council of Constantinople ) in 553, Abraham signed as metropolitan. The favors of Anastasius obtained for

147-508: A "temple" or "shrine"), since monasticism was unknown to the ancient Athenians and their ekklesía had been a popular assembly . The secular historians eschewed the history of the Christian church. Ecclesiastical history was left to a separate genre after Eusebius . However, Cameron has argued convincingly that Procopius's works reflect the tensions between the classical and Christian models of history in 6th-century Constantinople. This

196-802: A backdrop to Byzantine military activities, such as a mutiny in and around Carthage . He rejoined Belisarius for his campaign against the Ostrogothic kingdom in Italy and experienced the Gothic siege of Rome that lasted a year and nine days, ending in mid-March 538. He witnessed Belisarius's entry into the Gothic capital, Ravenna , in 540. Both the Wars and the Secret History suggest that his relationship with Belisarius cooled thereafter. When Belisarius

245-454: A conspiracy and was brought before this urban prefect. In fact, some scholars have argued that Procopius died at least a few years after 565 as he unequivocally states in the beginning of his Secret History that he planned to publish it after the death of Justinian for fear he would be tortured and killed by the emperor (or even by general Belisarius) if the emperor (or the general) learned about what Procopius wrote (his scathing criticism of

294-480: A conventional upper class education in the Greek classics and rhetoric , perhaps at the famous school at Gaza . He may have attended law school, possibly at Berytus (present-day Beirut ) or Constantinople (now Istanbul ), and became a lawyer ( rhetor ). He evidently knew Latin , as was natural for a man with legal training. In 527, the first year of the reign of the emperor Justinian   I , he became

343-452: A girdle about the groin: not that she was abashed at revealing that, too, to the audience, but because there was a law against appearing altogether naked on the stage, without at least this much of a fig-leaf. Covered thus with a ribbon, she would sink down to the stage floor and recline on her back. Slaves to whom the duty was entrusted would then scatter grains of barley from above into the calyx of this passion flower, whence geese, trained for

392-533: A major Christian church dedicated to the Virgin Mary was built on the site of the Temple Mount . It is not certain when Procopius died. Many historians—including Howard-Johnson , Cameron , and Geoffrey Greatrex—date his death to 554, but there was an urban prefect of Constantinople ( praefectus urbi Constantinopolitanae ) who was called Procopius in 562. In that year, Belisarius was implicated in

441-685: A massacre in the Hippodrome there. In 533, he accompanied Belisarius on his victorious expedition against the Vandal kingdom in North Africa , took part in the capture of Carthage , and remained in Africa with Belisarius's successor Solomon the Eunuch when Belisarius returned east to the capital. Procopius recorded a few of the extreme weather events of 535–536 , although these were presented as

490-409: A portrayal of Justinian and Theodora as caricatural villains. The Buildings ( ‹See Tfd› Greek : Περὶ Κτισμάτων , Perì Ktismáton ; Latin : De Aedificiis , "On Buildings") is a panegyric on Justinian's public works projects throughout the empire. The first book may date to before the collapse of the first dome of Hagia Sophia in 557, but some scholars think that it is possible that

539-542: A set. They were, however, updated to mid-century before publication, with the latest mentioned event occurring in early 551. The eighth and final book brought the history to 553. The first two books—often known as The Persian War ( Latin : De Bello Persico )—deal with the conflict between the Romans and Sassanid Persia in Mesopotamia , Syria , Armenia , Lazica , and Iberia (present-day Georgia ). It details

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588-442: A sharply different attitude towards Justinian. He is presented as an idealised Christian emperor who built churches for the glory of God and defenses for the safety of his subjects. He is depicted showing particular concern for the water supply, building new aqueducts and restoring those that had fallen into disuse. Theodora, who was dead when this panegyric was written, is mentioned only briefly, but Procopius's praise of her beauty

637-413: Is fulsome. Due to the panegyrical nature of Procopius's Buildings , historians have discovered several discrepancies between claims made by Procopius and accounts in other primary sources. A prime example is Procopius's starting the reign of Justinian in 518, which was actually the start of the reign of his uncle and predecessor Justin I . By treating the uncle's reign as part of his nephew's, Procopius

686-524: Is mentioned in Isaiah 37:12 ; cuneiform sources give Rasaappa, Rasappa, and Rasapi. Ptolemy calls it Rhesapha ( Koinē Greek : Ρεσαφα ). In the late Roman Tabula Peutingeriana , it is called Risapa . In the Notitia dignitatum , it is Rosafa . Procopius write that it was called Sergiopolis after the Saint Sergius . The site dates to the 9th century BC, when a military camp was built by

735-422: Is supported by Whitby 's analysis of Procopius's depiction of the capital and its cathedral in comparison to contemporary pagan panegyrics. Procopius can be seen as depicting Justinian as essentially God's vicegerent , making the case for buildings being a primarily religious panegyric. Procopius indicates that he planned to write an ecclesiastical history himself and, if he had, he would probably have followed

784-595: The Assyrians . During Roman times, it was a desert outpost fortified to defend against the Sasanian Empire and a station on the Strata Diocletiana . It flourished as its location on the caravan routes linking Aleppo , Dura-Europos , and Palmyra was ideal. Resafa had no spring or running water, so it depended on large cisterns to capture the winter and spring rains. Resafa was located in

833-476: The Secret History would not be proof that Procopius hated Justinian or Theodora. Researcher Anthony Kaldellis suggests that the Secret History is a tale of the dangers of "the rule of women". Procopius's perspective was that women's vices vanquished men's virtuous leadership. For Procopius, it was not that women could not lead an empire, but only women demonstrating masculine virtues were suitable as leaders. Rather than Theodora's true possession of strength, it

882-522: The Vandal kingdom that had occupied Rome's provinces in northwest Africa for the last century. The final four books—known as The Gothic War ( Latin : De Bello Gothico )—cover the Italian campaigns by Belisarius and others against the Ostrogoths . Procopius includes accounts of the 1st and 2nd sieges of Naples and the 1st , 2nd , and 3rd sieges of Rome . He also includes an account of

931-483: The Emperor suddenly rose from his throne and walked about, and indeed he was never wont to remain sitting for long, and immediately Justinian's head vanished, while the rest of his body seemed to ebb and flow; whereat the beholder stood aghast and fearful, wondering if his eyes were deceiving him. But presently he perceived the vanished head filling out and joining the body again as strangely as it had left it. Similarly,

980-671: The Mongols invaded the area. In the Syrian Civil War , the town was occupied by ISIS, before being liberated by Government forces on 19 June 2017 during the Southern Raqqa Offensive . Sergiopolis's first bishop was appointed shortly after 431 by John of Antioch , in spite of the opposition of the Metropolitan of Hierapolis Bambyce , on whom that church had till then depended. Later, Marianus attended

1029-515: The Theodora of the Secret History is a garish portrait of vulgarity and insatiable lust juxtaposed with cold-blooded self-interest, shrewishness, and envious and fearful mean-spiritedness. Among the more titillating (and dubious) revelations in the Secret History is Procopius's account of Theodora's thespian accomplishments: Often, even in the theatre, in the sight of all the people, she removed her costume and stood nude in their midst, except for

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1078-471: The Wars and appears to have been written after they were published. Current consensus generally dates it to 550, or less commonly 558. In the eyes of many scholars, the Secret History reveals an author who had become deeply disillusioned with Emperor Justinian, his wife Theodora , the general Belisarius , and his wife Antonina . The work claims to expose the secret springs of their public actions, as well as

1127-514: The antithesis of "good" rulers, with each representing the opposite side of emotional spectrum. Justinian was of "approachable and kindly" temperament, even while ordering property confiscations or people's destruction. Conversely, Theodora was described as irrational and driven by her anger, often by minor affronts. Procopius is believed to be aligned with many of the senatorial ranks that disagreed with Justinian and Theodora's tax policies and property confiscations ( Secret History 12.12-14). On

1176-593: The area of the Roman–Persian Wars , and was therefore a well-defended city that had massive walls that surrounded it without a break. It also had a fortress. In the 4th century, it became a pilgrimage town for Christians coming to venerate Saint Sergius , a Christian Roman soldier said to have been martyred in Resafa during the Diocletianic Persecution . A church was built to mark his grave, and

1225-587: The campaigns of the Sassanid shah Kavadh   I , the 532 'Nika' revolt , the war by Kavadh's successor Khosrau   I in 540, his destruction of Antioch and deportation of its inhabitants to Mesopotamia, and the great plague that devastated the empire from 542. The Persian War also covers the early career of Procopius's patron Belisarius in some detail. The Wars ’ next two books—known as The Vandal War or Vandalic War ( Latin : De Bello Vandalico )—cover Belisarius's successful campaign against

1274-574: The city the name of Anastasiopolis, which it still retained at the beginning of the seventh century. Bishop Candidus, at the time of the Sassanian Persian siege of the city by Khosrau I (in 543), ransomed 1,200 captives for two hundred pounds of gold, and, in 1093, Metropolitan Simeon restored the great Basilica ("Échos d'Orient", III, 238); which attests to the continuing existence of Christianity in Rasafa. The (arch)diocese of Sergiopolis

1323-661: The city was renamed Sergiopolis . Indeed, it became, after Jerusalem, "most important pilgrimage center in Byzantine Orientis in [the] proto-Byzantine period", with a special appeal to the local Arabs, especially the Ghassanids . By the late 6th century, the Ghassanids' tribal Arab ally the Bahra' were tasked with guarding Resafa and its shrine from nomadic marauders and the Lakhmids of Mesopotamia . The city

1372-438: The emperor, of his wife, of Belisarius, of the general's wife, Antonina: calling the former "demons in human form" and the latter incompetent and treacherous) in this later history. However, most scholars believe that the Secret History was written in 550 and remained unpublished during Procopius' lifetime. The writings of Procopius are the primary source of information for the rule of the emperor Justinian   I . Procopius

1421-539: The first two however still only as titular bishop : Procopius Procopius of Caesarea ( ‹See Tfd› Greek : Προκόπιος ὁ Καισαρεύς Prokópios ho Kaisareús ; Latin : Procopius Caesariensis ; c.  500 –565) was a prominent late antique Greek scholar and historian from Caesarea Maritima . Accompanying the Roman general Belisarius in Emperor Justinian 's wars, Procopius became

1470-572: The legal adviser ( adsessor ) for Belisarius , a general whom Justinian made his chief military commander in a great attempt to restore control over the lost western provinces of the empire. Procopius was with Belisarius on the eastern front until the latter was defeated at the Battle of Callinicum in 531 and recalled to Constantinople. Procopius witnessed the Nika riots of January, 532, which Belisarius and his fellow general Mundus repressed with

1519-436: The other hand, it has been argued that Procopius prepared the Secret History as an exaggerated document out of fear that a conspiracy might overthrow Justinian's regime, which—as a kind of court historian—might be reckoned to include him. The unpublished manuscript would then have been a kind of insurance, which could be offered to the new ruler as a way to avoid execution or exile after the coup. If this hypothesis were correct,

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1568-572: The principal Roman historian of the 6th century, writing the History of the Wars , the Buildings , and the Secret History . Apart from his own writings, the main source for Procopius's life is an entry in the Suda , a Byzantine Greek encyclopaedia written sometime after 975 which discusses his early life. He was a native of Caesarea in the province of Palaestina Prima . He would have received

1617-407: The private lives of the emperor and his entourage. Justinian is portrayed as cruel, venal, prodigal, and incompetent. In one passage, it is even claimed that he was possessed by demonic spirits or was himself a demon: And some of those who have been with Justinian at the palace late at night, men who were pure of spirit, have thought they saw a strange demoniac form taking his place. One man said that

1666-485: The purpose, would next pick the grains one by one with their bills and eat. Furthermore, Secret History portrays Belisarius as a weak man completely emasculated by his wife, Antonina, who is portrayed in very similar terms to Theodora. They are both said to be former actresses and close friends. Procopius claimed Antonina worked as an agent for Theodora against Belisarius, and had an ongoing affair with Belisarius' godson, Theodosius. Justinian and Theodora are portrayed as

1715-598: The rank of a "visible man" ( vir spectabilis ). He thus belonged to the mid-ranking group of the senatorial order ( ordo senatorius ). However, the Suda , which is usually well-informed in such matters, also describes Procopius himself as one of the illustres . Should this information be correct, Procopius would have had a seat in Constantinople's senate , which was restricted to the illustres under Justinian. He also wrote that under Justinian's reign in 560,

1764-664: The rise of the Franks (see Arborychoi ). The last book describes the eunuch Narses 's successful conclusion of the Italian campaign and includes some coverage of campaigns along the empire's eastern borders as well. The Wars proved influential on later Byzantine historiography. In the 570s Agathias wrote Histories , a continuation of Procopius's work in a similar style. Procopius's now famous Anecdota , also known as Secret History ( ‹See Tfd› Greek : Ἀπόκρυφη Ἱστορία , Apókryphe Historía ; Latin : Historia Arcana ),

1813-465: The rules of that genre. As far as known, however, such an ecclesiastical history was never written. Some historians have criticized Propocius's description of some barbarians, for example, he dehumanized the unfamiliar Moors as "not even properly human". This was however, inline with Byzantine ethnographic practice in late antiquity. A number of historical novels based on Procopius's works (along with other sources) have been written. Count Belisarius

1862-590: The school of late antique historians who continued the traditions of the Second Sophistic . They wrote in Attic Greek . Their models were Herodotus , Polybius and in particular Thucydides . Their subject matter was secular history. They avoided vocabulary unknown to Attic Greek and inserted an explanation when they had to use contemporary words. Thus Procopius includes glosses of monks ("the most temperate of Christians") and churches (as equivalent to

1911-409: The social order of men standing over women. In Averil Cameron's view, Procopius is more aptly described as a reporter rather than a historian, providing a black-and-white description of events, rather than a deeper analysis of the causes and motives. Cameron argues that his intense political focus and exaggeration of the imperial couple's vices prevent a balanced and holistic perspective, resulting in

1960-463: The work postdates the building of the bridge over the Sangarius in the late 550s. Historians consider Buildings to be an incomplete work due to evidence of the surviving version being a draft with two possible redactions. Buildings was likely written at Justinian's behest, and it is doubtful that its sentiments expressed are sincere. It tells us nothing further about Belisarius, and it takes

2009-487: Was Justinian's lack of it that created the impression of strength in her. According to researcher Averil Cameron, the definition of "feminine" behavior in the sixth century would be described as "intriguing" and "interfering". She argues Procopius's intent in including her speech during the Nika riots in the Wars may be to demonstrate that Theodora does not stay in her appropriate role. At his core, Procopius wanted to preserve

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2058-530: Was able to credit Justinian with buildings erected or begun under Justin's administration. Such works include renovation of the walls of Edessa after its 525 flood and consecration of several churches in the region. Similarly, Procopius falsely credits Justinian for the extensive refortification of the cities of Tomis and Histria in Scythia Minor . This had actually been carried out under Anastasius I , who reigned before Justin. Procopius belongs to

2107-423: Was delayed until all of them were dead to avoid retaliation. Procopius's Wars or History of the Wars ( ‹See Tfd› Greek : Ὑπὲρ τῶν Πολέμων Λόγοι , Hypèr tōn Polémon Lógoi , "Words on the Wars"; Latin : De Bellis , "On the Wars") is his most important work, although less well known than the Secret History . The first seven books seem to have been largely completed by 545 and may have been published as

2156-571: Was discovered centuries later at the Vatican Library in Rome and published in Lyon by Niccolò Alamanni in 1623. Its existence was already known from the Suda , which referred to it as Procopius's "unpublished works" containing "comedy" and "invective" of Justinian, Theodora, Belisarius and Antonina. The Secret History covers roughly the same years as the first seven books of The History of

2205-581: Was lost by the Byzantines in the 7th century when the Arabs won the final victory at the Battle of Yarmouk in the year 636. In the eighth century, the Umayyad caliph Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik (r. 724–743) made the city his favoured residence, and built several palaces around it, which are counted among the qasr  or desert castle category. The city was finally abandoned in the 13th century when

2254-416: Was nominally restored as a Roman Catholic titular bishopric , initially of the lowest (episcopal) rank, and under the curiate name Sergiopolis antea Resapha (having namesakes see Sergiopolis), and had the following incumbents as such: In 1925, it was promoted to titular archbishopric of the highest, Metropolitan rank, and its name was shortened to Sergiopolis. As such, it has had the following incumbents,

2303-451: Was sent back to Italy in 544 to cope with a renewal of the war with the Goths , now led by the able king Totila , Procopius appears to have no longer been on Belisarius's staff. As magister militum , Belisarius was an "illustrious man" ( Latin : vir illustris ; ‹See Tfd› Greek : ἰλλούστριος , illoústrios ); being his adsessor , Procopius must therefore have had at least

2352-406: Was the author of a history in eight books on the wars prosecuted by Justinian, a panegyric on the emperor's public works projects throughout the empire, and a book known as the Secret History that claims to report the scandals that Procopius could not include in his officially sanctioned history for fear of angering the emperor, his wife, Belisarius, and the general's wife. Consequently publication

2401-626: Was written by poet and novelist Robert Graves in 1938. Procopius himself appears as a minor character in Felix Dahn 's A Struggle for Rome and in L. Sprague de Camp 's alternate history novel Lest Darkness Fall . The novel's main character, archaeologist Martin Padway, derives most of his knowledge of historical events from the Secret History . The narrator in Herman Melville 's novel Moby-Dick cites Procopius's description of

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