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19-666: The terminology “S-layer” was used the first time in 1976. The general use was accepted at the "First International Workshop on Crystalline Bacterial Cell Surface Layers, Vienna (Austria)" in 1984, and in the year 1987 S-layers were defined at the European Molecular Biology Organization Workshop on “Crystalline Bacterial Cell Surface Layers”, Vienna as “Two-dimensional arrays of proteinaceous subunits forming surface layers on prokaryotic cells” (see "Preface", page VI in Sleytr "et al. 1988"). For

38-790: A bacterium which utilizes the biological functions of the S-layer is Clostridioides difficile. In C. difficile , the S-layer has helped with biofilm formation, host cell adhesion, and immunomodulation through cell signaling of the host response. While ubiquitous among Archaea, and common in bacteria, the S-layers of diverse organisms have unique structural properties, including symmetry and unit cell dimensions, due to fundamental differences in their constituent building blocks. Sequence analyses of S-layer proteins have predicted that S-layer proteins have sizes of 40-200 kDa and may be composed of multiple domains some of which may be structurally related. Since

57-546: A brief summary on the history of S-layer research see "References" . For many bacteria, the S-layer represents the outermost interaction zone with their respective environment. Its functions are very diverse and vary from species to species. In many archaeal species the S-layer is the only cell wall component and, therefore, is important for mechanical and osmotic stabilization. The S-layer is considered to be porous, which contributes to many of its functions. Additional functions associated with S-layers include: A great example of

76-480: Is co-published with Rockefeller University Press and Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press. In 2022, Fiona Watt was appointed sixth director of EMBO succeeding the previous EMBO Directors Raymond Appleyard, John Tooze, Frank Gannon , Hermann Bujard and Maria Leptin. In 2011, EMBO established a Policy Programme which interacts with policymakers and provides analysis of concerns emerging from advances in scientific research. Closely affiliated organisations to EMBO include

95-691: The European Molecular Biology Laboratory (EMBL) , and The Federation of European Biochemical Societies (FEBS) which like EMBO, primarily operate in the European Research Area (ERA) . Initiative for Science in Europe The Initiative for Science in Europe ( ISE ) is an independent platform of European learned societies and scientific organisations. It provides a common forum for

114-504: The M . acetivorans and G . stearothermophilus S-layers to be proposed. These models exhibit hexagonal (p6) and oblique (p2) symmetry, for M . acetivorans and G . stearothermophilus S-layers, respectively, and their molecular features, including dimensions and porosity, are in good agreement with data from electron microscopy studies of archaeal and bacterial S-layers. In general, S-layers exhibit either oblique (p1, p2), square (p4) or hexagonal (p3, p6) lattice symmetry. Depending on

133-571: The Methanosarcinales S-layer Tile Protein family and a bacterial S-layer protein (SbsB), from Geobacillus stearothermophilus PV72, have recently been determined by X-ray crystallography . In contrast with existing crystal structures, which have represented individual domains of S-layer proteins or minor proteinaceous components of the S-layer, the MA0829 and SbsB structures have allowed high resolution models of

152-545: The EMBO Journal was launched, in 1986, the EMBO Gold Medal , an annual award for young scientists, was established. The "Young Investigator Program" which awards grants to young professors was established in 2000 and four additional journals were launched in 2000 ( EMBO Reports ), 2005 ( Molecular Systems Biology ), 2008 ( EMBO Molecular Medicine ) and 2019 ( Life Science Alliance ). Life Science Alliance

171-865: The European Molecular Biology Conference (EMBC) was set up as a political body with 14 countries as initial members. Since 1964, scientists have been elected annually as members of EMBO based on excellence in research. There are currently more than 1,800 Members of the European Molecular Biology Organization , 90 of whom have received the Nobel Prize . As of 2018, the EMBC has 30 member states, two associate member states ( India , Singapore ) and two co-operation partners ( Chile ( CONICYT ), Taiwan ( MOST and Academia Sinica )). In 1982,

190-436: The development of biosensors and ultrafiltration membranes. Subsequently, S-layer fusion proteins with specific functional domains (e.g. enzymes, ligands, mimotopes, antibodies or antigens) allowed to investigate completely new strategies for functionalizing surfaces in the life sciences, such as in the development of novel affinity matrices, mucosal vaccines, biocompatible surfaces, micro carriers and encapsulation systems, or in

209-400: The first evidence of a macromolecular array on a bacterial cell wall fragment in the 1950s S-layer structure has been investigated extensively by electron microscopy and medium resolution images of S-layers from these analyses has provided useful information on overall S-layer morphology. High-resolution structures of an archaeal S-layer protein (MA0829 from Methanosarcina acetivorans C2A) of

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228-607: The initiative was rapidly joined by other disciplines and organisations. As a consequence, the Initiative for Science in Europe was formally launched on 25 October 2004 in Paris, France. The organisation was eventually registered as a not-for-profit organisation in Strasbourg on 12 October 2017. The first President of ISE was Jose Mariano Gago , former Portuguese Minister of Science, Technology and Higher Education and one of

247-494: The lack of involvement of scientists in policy making has led European learned societies in the early 2000s to seek ways to advocate a stronger role for science in Europe. Initial focus was on the visionary idea of a European funding instrument to foster and fund frontier research of the highest quality in all scientific disciplines. Activities were first coordinated by the European Life Science Forum, but

266-766: The lattice symmetry, each morphological unit of the S-layer is composed of one (p1), two (p2), three (p3), four (p4), or six (p6) identical protein subunits. The center-to-center spacing (or unit cell dimensions) between these subunits range from 4 to 35 nm. Assembly of a highly ordered coherent monomolecular S-layer array on a growing cell surface requires a continuous synthesis of a surplus of S-layer proteins and their translocation to sites of lattice growth. Moreover, information concerning this dynamic process were obtained from reconstitution experiments with isolated S-layer subunits on cell surfaces from which they had been removed (homologous reattachment) or on those of other organisms (heterologous reattachment). S-layer proteins have

285-483: The material sciences as templates for biomineralization. European Molecular Biology Organization The European Molecular Biology Organization ( EMBO ) is a professional, non-profit organization of more than 1,800 life scientists. Its goal is to promote research in life science and enable international exchange between scientists. It co-funds courses, workshops and conferences, publishes five scientific journals and supports individual scientists. The organization

304-446: The natural capability to self-assemble into regular monomolecular arrays in solution and at interfaces, such as solid supports, the air-water interface, lipid films, liposomes, emulsomes, nanocapsules, nanoparticles or micro beads. S-layer crystal growth follows a non-classical pathway in which a final refolding step of the S-layer protein is part of the lattice formation. Native S-layer proteins have already been used three decades ago in

323-497: The scientific communities to advocate independent scientific advice in European policy making and to stimulate the involvement of European scientists in the design and implementation of European science policy. Founded as informal organisation back in 2004, it was later registered as a not-for-profit organisation in Strasbourg since October 2017. General dissatisfaction with science policy and funding instruments at European level and

342-818: Was founded in 1964 and is a founding member of the Initiative for Science in Europe . As of 2022 the Director of EMBO is Fiona Watt , a stem cell researcher, professor at King's College London and a group leader at the European Molecular Biology Laboratory . EMBO funds or co-funds over 90 meetings involving more than 11,000 participants every year. EMBO publishes five peer-reviewed scientific journals : The EMBO Journal , EMBO Reports , Molecular Systems Biology , EMBO Molecular Medicine , and Life Science Alliance , The European Molecular Biology Organization (EMBO)

361-636: Was launched in July 1964 after a group of European biologists had discussed the idea earlier at a meeting in Ravello . The initial goals of EMBO consisted of creating a central European laboratory for life sciences and increasing scientific interactions between researchers in Europe. At the Ravello meeting, Max Perutz was elected as the first EMBO chairman and John Kendrew as secretary general. Initially, 140 biologists were elected EMBO members and in 1969,

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