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47-639: On 1 February 1949, the name of the First World War organisation was revived when the Women's Auxiliary Air Force , which had been founded in 1939, was re-established on a regular footing as the Women's Royal Air Force. The WRAF and the RAF grew closer over the following decades, with increasing numbers of trades opened to women, and the two services formally merged in 1994, marking the full assimilation of women into

94-473: A sense of community. In The Social Construction of Mobile Telephony it is suggested that each phone call and text message is more than an attempt to converse. Instead, it is a gesture which maintains the social network between family and friends. Although there is a loss of certain social cues through telephones, mobile phones bring new forms of expression of different cues that are understood by different audiences. New language additives attempt to compensate for

141-477: A separate ranking system until 1968, when they too adopted RAF officer ranks . These ranks were introduced in 1949. The First World War service used different ranks. Women%27s Auxiliary Air Force The Women's Auxiliary Air Force ( WAAF ), whose members were referred to as WAAFs ( / ˈ w æ f s / ), was the female auxiliary of the British Royal Air Force during

188-419: A separate telephone wired to each locations to be reached. This quickly became inconvenient and unmanageable when users wanted to communicate with more than a few people. The invention of the telephone exchange provided the solution for establishing telephone connections with any other telephone in service in the local area. Each telephone was connected to the exchange at first with one wire, later one wire pair,

235-544: A system of telecommunications in which telephonic equipment is employed in the transmission of speech or other sound between points, with or without the use of wires. The term is also used frequently to refer to computer hardware , software , and computer network systems, that perform functions traditionally performed by telephone equipment. In this context the technology is specifically referred to as Internet telephony, or voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP). The first telephones were connected directly in pairs. Each user had

282-508: A trunk to a distant exchange. Most of the exchanges in the world are interconnected through a system of larger switching systems, forming the public switched telephone network (PSTN). In the second half of the 20th century, fax and data became important secondary applications of the network created to carry voices, and late in the century, parts of the network were upgraded with ISDN and DSL to improve handling of such traffic. Today, telephony uses digital technology ( digital telephony ) in

329-541: A vital presence in the control of aircraft, both in radar stations and iconically as plotters in operation rooms, most notably during the Battle of Britain . These operation rooms directed fighter aircraft against the Luftwaffe , mapping both home and enemy aircraft positions. Air Force nurses belonged to Princess Mary's Royal Air Force Nursing Service instead. Female medical and dental officers were commissioned into

376-439: Is a major development in the evolution of office automation. The term is used in describing the computerized services of call centers, such as those that direct your phone call to the right department at a business you're calling. It is also sometimes used for the ability to use your personal computer to initiate and manage phone calls (in which case you can think of your computer as your personal call center). Digital telephony

423-456: Is also used on private networks which may or may not have a connection to the global telephone network. Direct person-to-person communication includes non-verbal cues expressed in facial and other bodily articulation, that cannot be transmitted in traditional voice telephony. Video telephony restores such interactions to varying degrees. Social Context Cues Theory is a model to measure the success of different types of communication in maintaining

470-566: Is relatively unregulated by government. In the United States, the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) regulates phone-to-phone connections, but says they do not plan to regulate connections between a phone user and an IP telephony service provider. A specialization of digital telephony, Internet Protocol (IP) telephony involves the application of digital networking technology that was the foundation to

517-422: Is the field of technology involving the development, application, and deployment of telecommunications services for the purpose of electronic transmission of voice, fax , or data , between distant parties. The history of telephony is intimately linked to the invention and development of the telephone . Telephony is commonly referred to as the construction or operation of telephones and telephonic systems and as

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564-455: Is the use of digital electronics in the operation and provisioning of telephony systems and services. Since the late 20th century, a digital core network has replaced the traditional analog transmission and signaling systems, and much of the access network has also been digitized. Starting with the development of transistor technology, originating from Bell Telephone Laboratories in 1947, to amplification and switching circuits in

611-507: Is well known, Wiesenfeld, Raghuram, and Garud point out that there is a value and efficiency to the type of communication for different tasks. They examine work places in which different types of communication, such as the telephone, are more useful than face-to-face interaction. The expansion of communication to mobile telephone service has created a different filter of the social cues than the land-line telephone. The use of instant messaging, such as texting , on mobile telephones has created

658-1175: The Internet to create, transmit, and receive telecommunications sessions over computer networks . Internet telephony is commonly known as voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP), reflecting the principle, but it has been referred with many other terms. VoIP has proven to be a disruptive technology that is rapidly replacing traditional telephone infrastructure technologies. As of January 2005, up to 10% of telephone subscribers in Japan and South Korea have switched to this digital telephone service. A January 2005 Newsweek article suggested that Internet telephony may be "the next big thing". As of 2006, many VoIP companies offer service to consumers and businesses . IP telephony uses an Internet connection and hardware IP phones , analog telephone adapters, or softphone computer applications to transmit conversations encoded as data packets . In addition to replacing plain old telephone service (POTS), IP telephony services compete with mobile phone services by offering free or lower cost connections via WiFi hotspots . VoIP

705-644: The Second World War . Established in 1939, WAAF numbers exceeded 181,000 at its peak strength in 1943, (15.7% of the RAF) with over 2,000 women enlisting per week. A Women's Royal Air Force had existed from 1918 to 1920, but had been disbanded in the wake of the end of the First World War , alongside the Women's Army Auxiliary Corp (1917–1921) and the first iteration of the Women's Royal Naval Service (1917–1919). The Women's Auxiliary Air Force

752-401: The local loop . Nearby exchanges in other service areas were connected with trunk lines , and long-distance service could be established by relaying the calls through multiple exchanges. Initially, exchange switchboards were manually operated by an attendant, commonly referred to as the " switchboard operator ". When a customer cranked a handle on the telephone, it activated an indicator on

799-478: The modified discrete cosine transform (MDCT), has been widely adopted for speech coding in voice-over-IP (VoIP) applications since the late 1990s. The development of transmission methods such as SONET and fiber optic transmission further advanced digital transmission. Although analog carrier systems existed that multiplexed multiple analog voice channels onto a single transmission medium, digital transmission allowed lower cost and more channels multiplexed on

846-693: The predecessor organisations. The first incarnation never exceeded 25,000. Depots were opened in 1918 at Handsworth College, in Glasgow, at RAF Flowerdown , RAF Spitalgate , near Grantham, and at York. In the 1950s the WRAF Depot and WRAF Officer Cadet Training Unit were opened at RAF Hawkinge in Kent. The WRAF inherited its rank structure from its predecessor, the WAAF. As with WAAF practice (from 1940), other ranks held standard RAF ranks, but officers used

893-410: The rapid scaling and miniaturization of MOS technology. Uncompressed PCM digital audio with 8-bit depth and 8   kHz sample rate requires a bit rate of 64   kbit/s , which was impractical for early digital telecommunication networks with limited network bandwidth . A solution to this issue was linear predictive coding (LPC), a speech coding data compression algorithm that

940-497: The 1950s, the public switched telephone network (PSTN) has gradually moved towards solid-state electronics and automation . Following the development of computer -based electronic switching systems incorporating metal–oxide–semiconductor (MOS) and pulse-code modulation (PCM) technologies, the PSTN gradually evolved towards the digitization of signaling and audio transmissions . Digital telephony has since dramatically improved

987-677: The British forces and the end of the Women's Royal Air Force. The Central Band of the WRAF, one of only two all-female bands in the British Armed Forces, was disbanded in 1972. Some of its musicians transferred to the Band of the Women's Royal Army Corps . The target strength had been a force of around 90,000, figures are unreliable until 1 August 1918, when the strength was 15,433, approximately 5,000 recruits and 10,000 transferred from

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1034-626: The MOS mixed-signal integrated circuit , which combines analog and digital signal processing on a single chip, developed by former Bell engineer David A. Hodges with Paul R. Gray at UC Berkeley in the early 1970s. In 1974, Hodges and Gray worked with R.E. Suarez to develop MOS switched capacitor (SC) circuit technology, which they used to develop a digital-to-analog converter (DAC) chip, using MOS capacitors and MOSFET switches for data conversion. MOS analog-to-digital converter (ADC) and DAC chips were commercialized by 1974. MOS SC circuits led to

1081-606: The RAF) instead of chief controller (equivalent to major-general or air vice-marshal) as in the ATS. However, in December 1939 the title was changed to air commandant, when the ranks were renamed and reorganised. Other ranks now held identical ranks to male RAF personnel, but officers continued to have a separate rank system, although now different from that of the ATS. From February 1940 it was no longer possible to enter directly as an officer; from that time all officers were appointed from

1128-580: The Royal Air Force and held RAF ranks. WAAFs were paid two-thirds of the pay of male counterparts in RAF ranks. By the end of the Second World War, WAAF enrolment had declined and the effect of demobilisation was to take the vast majority out of the service. The remainder, now only several hundred strong, was renamed the Women's Royal Air Force on 1 February 1949. Nursing Orderlies of the WAAF flew on RAF transport planes to evacuate

1175-416: The advent of new communication technologies. Telephony now includes the technologies of Internet services and mobile communication, including video conferencing. The new technologies based on Internet Protocol (IP) concepts are often referred to separately as voice over IP (VoIP) telephony, also commonly referred to as IP telephony or Internet telephony. Unlike traditional phone service, IP telephony service

1222-459: The assistance of other operators at other exchangers in the network. Until the 1970s, most telephones were permanently wired to the telephone line installed at customer premises. Later, conversion to installation of jacks that terminated the inside wiring permitted simple exchange of telephone sets with telephone plugs and allowed portability of the set to multiple locations in the premises where jacks were installed. The inside wiring to all jacks

1269-399: The bandwidth-limited analog voice signal and encoding using pulse-code modulation (PCM). Early PCM codec - filters were implemented as passive resistor – capacitor – inductor filter circuits, with analog-to-digital conversion (for digitizing voices) and digital-to-analog conversion (for reconstructing voices) handled by discrete devices . Early digital telephony was impractical due to

1316-422: The board in front of the operator, who would in response plug the operator headset into that jack and offer service. The caller had to ask for the called party by name, later by number, and the operator connected one end of a circuit into the called party jack to alert them. If the called station answered, the operator disconnected their headset and completed the station-to-station circuit. Trunk calls were made with

1363-420: The capacity, quality and cost of the network. Digitization allows wideband voice on the same channel, with improved quality of a wider analog voice channel. The earliest end-to-end analog telephone networks to be modified and upgraded to transmission networks with Digital Signal 1 (DS1/T1) carrier systems date back to the early 1960s. They were designed to support the basic 3 kHz voice channel by sampling

1410-487: The choice of the military auxiliary services, the civilian Women's Land Army or factory work in support of the war effort. Women recruited into the WAAF were given basic training at one of five sites, though not all of the sites ran training simultaneously. The five sites were at West Drayton , Harrogate , Bridgnorth , Innsworth and Wilmslow . All WAAF basic recruit training was located at Wilmslow from 1943. WAAFs did not serve as aircrew . (The use of women pilots

1457-555: The crash. The first three Flying Nightingales to arrive in France, a week after D-Day, were Corporal Lydia Alford, LACW Myra Roberts and LACW Edna Birkbeck. In October 2008 the seven known nurses still living were presented with lifetime achievement awards by the Duchess of Cornwall . On 1 July 1939, Jane Trefusis Forbes was made Director of WAAF, with the rank of Senior Controller, later, Air Commandant. On 1 January 1943 she

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1504-1115: The development of PCM codec-filter chips in the late 1970s. The silicon-gate CMOS (complementary MOS) PCM codec-filter chip, developed by Hodges and W.C. Black in 1980, has since been the industry standard for digital telephony. By the 1990s, telecommunication networks such as the public switched telephone network (PSTN) had been largely digitized with very-large-scale integration (VLSI) CMOS PCM codec-filters, widely used in electronic switching systems for telephone exchanges , private branch exchanges (PBX) and key telephone systems (KTS); user-end modems ; data transmission applications such as digital loop carriers , pair gain multiplexers , telephone loop extenders , integrated services digital network (ISDN) terminals, digital cordless telephones and digital cell phones ; and applications such as speech recognition equipment, voice data storage , voice mail and digital tapeless answering machines . The bandwidth of digital telecommunication networks has been rapidly increasing at an exponential rate, as observed by Edholm's law , largely driven by

1551-455: The first transistors in which drain and source were adjacent at the surface. Subsequently, a team demonstrated a working MOSFET at Bell Labs 1960. MOS technology was initially overlooked by Bell because they did not find it practical for analog telephone applications, before it was commercialized by Fairchild and RCA for digital electronics such as computers . MOS technology eventually became practical for telephone applications with

1598-400: The low performance and high costs of early PCM codec-filters. Practical digital telecommunication was enabled by the invention of the metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET), which led to the rapid development and wide adoption of PCM digital telephony. In 1957, Frosch and Derick were able to manufacture the first silicon dioxide field effect transistors at Bell Labs,

1645-433: The non-verbal cues present in face-to-face interactions. The research examines many different cues, such as the physical context, different facial expressions, body movements, tone of voice, touch and smell. Various communication cues are lost with the usage of the telephone. The communicating parties are not able to identify the body movements, and lack touch and smell. Although this diminished ability to identify social cues

1692-506: The other ranks. From July 1941 WAAF officers held full commissions. On 1 January 1943, the rank of air chief commandant (equivalent to air vice-marshal) was created with the director's appointment to that rank. Several members of the WAAF served with the Special Operations Executive during the Second World War. Telephony Telephony ( / t ə ˈ l ɛ f ə n i / tə- LEF -ə-nee )

1739-515: The post of director was given to Mary Welsh, who was appointed Air Chief Commandant. After the war, the rank of Air Chief Commandant was suspended and in December 1946, the final director of WAAF, Felicity Hanbury, was appointed. Initially, the WAAF used the ATS ranking system , although the director held the rank of senior controller (equivalent to brigadier in the British Army and air commodore in

1786-488: The provisioning of telephone services and systems. Telephone calls can be provided digitally, but may be restricted to cases in which the last mile is digital, or where the conversion between digital and analog signals takes place inside the telephone. This advancement has reduced costs in communication, and improved the quality of voice services. The first implementation of this, ISDN , permitted all data transport from end-to-end speedily over telephone lines. This service

1833-465: The transmission medium. Today the end instrument often remains analog but the analog signals are typically converted to digital signals at the serving area interface (SAI), central office (CO), or other aggregation point. Digital loop carriers (DLC) and fiber to the x place the digital network ever closer to the customer premises, relegating the analog local loop to legacy status. The field of technology available for telephony has broadened with

1880-442: The use of oxygen, injections, learning how to deal with certain types of injuries such as broken bones, missing limb cases, head injuries, burns and colostomies; and to learn the effects of air travel and altitude. Although supplied with parachutes, they were instructed not to use them if the plane was shot down on its return from Europe and instead stay with the wounded soldiers onboard and provide medical support should anyone survive

1927-586: The wounded from the Normandy battlefields. They were dubbed the Flying Nightingales by the press. The RAF Air Ambulance Unit flew under 46 Group Transport Command from RAF Down Ampney , RAF Broadwell , and RAF Blakehill Farm . RAF Dakota aircraft carried military supplies and ammunition so could not display the Red Cross . Training for air ambulance nursing duties included instruction in

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1974-570: Was appointed to the rank of Air Chief Commandant with its creation. On 4 October 1943, while Forbes toured Canada, assessing the Royal Canadian Air Force Women's Division , she was relieved by Princess Alice, Duchess of Gloucester , who had been head of the WAAF since 1939, again with the rank of Senior Controller, then, Air Commandant, being gazetted to Air Chief Commandant on 22 March 1943. Forbes retired in August 1944, and

2021-417: Was connected in one place to the wire drop which connects the building to a cable. Cables usually bring a large number of drop wires from all over a district access network to one wire center or telephone exchange. When a telephone user wants to make a telephone call , equipment at the exchange examines the dialed telephone number and connects that telephone line to another in the same wire center, or to

2068-712: Was created on 28 June 1939, absorbing the forty-eight RAF companies of the Auxiliary Territorial Service which had existed since 1938, following the Munich Agreement . Conscription of women did not begin until after December 1941 when the UK Government passed the National Service Act (No. 2), which was issued by Royal Proclamation on 10 January 1942. It only applied to those between 20 and 30 years of age and they had

2115-451: Was first proposed by Fumitada Itakura of Nagoya University and Shuzo Saito of Nippon Telegraph and Telephone (NTT) in 1966. LPC was capable of audio data compression down to 2.4   kbit/s, leading to the first successful real-time conversations over digital networks in the 1970s. LPC has since been the most widely used speech coding method. Another audio data compression method, a discrete cosine transform (DCT) algorithm called

2162-514: Was later made much less important due to the ability to provide digital services based on the Internet protocol suite . Since the advent of personal computer technology in the 1980s, computer telephony integration (CTI) has progressively provided more sophisticated telephony services, initiated and controlled by the computer, such as making and receiving voice, fax, and data calls with telephone directory services and caller identification . The integration of telephony software and computer systems

2209-798: Was limited to the Air Transport Auxiliary , which was civilian, but 30 WAAFs did transfer to serve as pilots in the ATA). Although WAAFs did not participate in active combat, they were exposed to the same dangers as any on the "home front" working at military installations. They were active in parachute packing and the crewing of barrage balloons in addition to performing catering , meteorology , radar , aircraft maintenance, transport, policing, communications duties including wireless telephonic and telegraphic operation. They worked with codes and ciphers, analysed reconnaissance photographs , and performed intelligence operations. WAAFs were

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