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99-596: The Woodhead Tunnels are three parallel trans- Pennine 3-mile (4.8 km) long railway tunnels on the Woodhead Line , a former major rail link from Manchester to Sheffield in Northern England. The western portals of the tunnels are at Woodhead in Derbyshire and the eastern portals are at Dunford Bridge , near Penistone , South Yorkshire . The first tunnel, Woodhead 1 was constructed by

198-521: A bid for the Trans-Pennine rail franchise . In 2006, 'Translink' proposed that the tunnel be reopened as a route for rail freight. The proposal was supported by groups who were opposing the construction of the proposed Longdendale Bypass , a £180 million scheme for avoiding Mottram in Longdendale , Hollingworth and Tintwistle . The tunnel was an alternative means of handling some of

297-526: A campaign group, originally named "Save the Woodhead Tunnel", was established; it was renamed "Re-open the Woodhead Tunnel" the following year. On 24 January 2008, preparatory work on the tunnel commenced, although this did not end the objections. In January 2012, during a debate in parliament, Angela Smith MP called for the reopening of the Woodhead route, but was informed that the line was not

396-544: A gradient of 1 in 201, rising toward the east. Wires were suspended down each shaft from which the centre line was determined by means of a theodolite . The accuracy was such that the drifts lined up with less than three inches of error. After Vignoles withdrew, the civil engineer Joseph Locke took over as a consultant and re-evaluated the project. The estimated costs were doubled from the £98,467 figure produced by Vignoles to around £200,000 and contractors were provided with new, highly detailed specifications. Locke supervised

495-408: A huge effect on the economy of the route well into the 1950s. The tunnels acquired a negative reputation. It was claimed that they provided a poor operating environment and were difficult to maintain, partially caused by the level of traffic. Train crews described the tunnels as "hell holes" because of their narrow bores, which were claustrophobic and sooty. The decision to electrify the route during

594-789: A new large-gauge freight line along the trackbed of the Great Central Main Line . In 2002, the Trans-Pennine Rail Group, composed of county councils, unitary authorities, passenger transport executives (PTE) and the Peak District National Park Authority provided evidence to the Transport Select Committee that identified interest from bidders for the Trans-Pennine rail franchise in reopening

693-639: A new tunnel would be a better option if the route should ever be used again for rail traffic, and that the Hope Valley route had the capacity to accommodate foreseeable growth. Pennines The Pennines ( / ˈ p ɛ n aɪ n z / ), also known as the Pennine Chain or Pennine Hills , are a range of uplands mainly located in Northern England . Commonly described as the " backbone of England" because of its length and position,

792-413: A place of safety. The uncertainty of this method led to many accidents and various measures were introduced to improve safety for those involved. One was replacing the iron wire, by which the passage for the gunpowder is formed, with one of copper, to eliminate sparking that could ignite the powder prematurely. Another was the use of a safety fuse . This consisted of small train of gunpowder inserted in

891-650: A priority as part of the Northern Hub because of capacity available on the Hope Valley line . In 2012, Balfour Beatty fitted new electricity cables through the tunnel which were individually laid in concrete and sand insulated ducts at the tunnel exit for connection to the first pylon. Old galvanised steelwork over the River Etherow was removed. The tunnel has a flat concrete floor and concrete-finished walls and ceiling. The cables run down both sides of

990-550: A project commonly known as the Manchester–Sheffield–Wath electrification. The line was electrified at 1,500 V DC . It was designed by Sir William Halcrow & Partners. Its height of 7.6 metres (25 ft) was dictated by the requirements of the Ministry of Transport . Woodhead 3's construction was not without challenge. Two roof collapses occurred in 1951, both around the same area. To resolve this weakness,

1089-418: A rock tunnel have a high capital cost, but because they are usually quicker than a drill and blast tunnel the price per metre of tunnel is lower. This means that shorter tunnels tend to be less economical to construct with a TBM and are therefore usually constructed by drill and blast. Managing ground conditions can also have a significant effect on the choice with different methods suited to different hazards in

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1188-467: A second bore. Although more care was exercised during its construction, in regards to safety conditions, an outbreak of cholera amongst the workforce, in 1849, resulted in 28 deaths. In January 1852, a bulge was discovered in the tunnel wall in the centre section and had to be rebuilt. Later that year, Woodhead 2 was completed. Soon after opening, the twin tunnels saw heavy use by steam trains, an average of 250 trains per day in each direction. Traffic had

1287-672: A series of geological structures whose overall form is a broad anticline whose axis extends in a north–south direction. The North Pennines are coincident with the Alston Block and the Yorkshire Dales are coincident with the Askrigg Block . In the south the Peak District is essentially a flat-topped dome. Each of the structures consists of Carboniferous limestone overlain with Millstone Grit . The limestone

1386-514: A series of ribbed arches were installed in this section. Reinforced concrete lining, of 530 mm (21 in) minimum thickness, was installed throughout the tunnel and an adjacent bypass tunnel was built to improve access and ventilation. The new bore is separated from the nearest tunnel by 21.4 m (70 ft). This close proximity was advantageous as it proved convenient during track laying. The old tunnels presented an operational benefit, as water continued to seep into Woodhead 3's predecessors,

1485-526: A water-proof cord, which burns at a steady and uniform rate. This in turn was later replaced by a long piece of wire that was used to deliver an electric charge to ignite the explosive. The first to use this method for underwater blasting was Charles Pasley who employed it in 1839 to break up the wreck of the British warship HMS Royal George which had become a shipping hazard at Spithead . An early major use of blasting to remove rock occurred in 1843 when

1584-785: Is bordered by the foothills of the Lake District , and uplands of the Howgill Fells, Orton Fells, Border Moors and Cheviot Hills. The West Pennine Moors, Rossendale Valley and Forest of Bowland are western spurs, the former two are in the South Pennines. The Howgill Fells and Orton Fells are sometimes considered to be part of the Pennines, both inside the Yorkshire Dales National Park. The Pennines are fringed by extensive lowlands including

1683-742: Is exposed at the surface in the North Pennines, Yorkshire Dales and the Peak District. In the Dales and the White Peak , limestone exposure has caused the formation of large cave systems and watercourses. In the Dales the caves or potholes are known as "pots" in the Yorkshire dialect . They include some of the largest caves in England at Gaping Gill , more than 350 ft (107 m) deep and Rowten Pot , 365 ft (111 m) deep. Titan in

1782-456: Is sparsely populated by English standards. Larger population centres are in the foothills and lowlands fringing the southern Pennine range, such as Barnsley , Chesterfield , Halifax , Huddersfield , Macclesfield , Oldham , Bury , Rochdale , Middleton , and Stockport but most of the northern Pennine range is thinly populated. The cities of Bradford , Derby , Leeds , Manchester , Sheffield , Stoke-on-Trent and Wakefield are also in

1881-531: Is the most important mineral quarried, mainly for roads and cement, while other extracted materials include shale for cement and gritstone for building stone. The springs at Buxton and Ashbourne are exploited to produce bottled mineral water and there are approximately 2,700 farms in the National Park. The South Pennines are predominantly industrial, with the main industries including textiles, quarrying and mining, while other economic activities within

1980-952: Is usually taken to derive from some form of Celtic pen or ben ("mountain, head"). Various towns and geographical features within the Pennines have names of Celtic origin, including Pennington , Penrith , Pen-y-ghent , Pendle Hill , the River Eden , and Cumbria . More commonly, local names result from Anglo-Saxon and Norse settlements. In Yorkshire, Teesdale , and Cumbria, many words of Norse origin, not commonly used in standard English, are part of everyday speech: for example, gill/ghyll (narrow steep valley), beck (brook or stream), fell (hill), and dale (valley). Northumbrian/borders terms are used in South Tynedale, Weardale , and Allendale , such as burn (stream), cleugh (ravine), hope (valley), law (hill) and linn (waterfall). The northern Pennine range

2079-692: The A684 road from Sedbergh to Hawes via Garsdale Head which reaches 1,100 feet (340 m). Further south the A58 road traverses the Calder Valley between West Yorkshire and Greater Manchester reaching 1,282 feet (391 m) between Littleborough and Ripponden , while the A646 road along the Calder Valley between Burnley and Halifax reaches 764 feet (233 m) following valley floors. In

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2178-748: The Blue Ridge Tunnel in the United States, built in the 1850s), it was not until more powerful (and safer) explosives , such as dynamite (patented 1867), as well as powered drills were developed, that its potential was fully realised. Drilling and blasting was successfully used to construct tunnels throughout the world, notably the Fréjus Rail Tunnel , the Gotthard Rail Tunnel , the Simplon Tunnel ,

2277-468: The Dark Peak with moorlands and gritstone edges, and the White Peak with limestone gorges. The South Pennines is an area of hills and moorlands with narrow valleys between the Peak District and Yorkshire Dales. Bowland is dominated by a central upland landform of deeply incised gritstone fells covered with tracts of heather-covered peat moorland, blanket bog and steep-sided wooded valleys linking

2376-734: The Eden Valley , West Lancashire Coastal Plain , Cheshire Plain , Vale of York , Humberhead Levels and the Midland Plains . The main range of the Pennines start from its southern end at the Weaver Hills in the Peak District. The southern foothills of the range merge into the valley and basin of the River Trent , separating the range from the Midland Plains to the south. The Pennines continue northwards across

2475-564: The Industrial Revolution cross the range: The first of three Woodhead Tunnels was completed by the Sheffield, Ashton-Under-Lyne and Manchester Railway in 1845, engineered by Charles Vignoles and Joseph Locke . At the time of its completion in 1845, Woodhead 1 was one of the world's longest railway tunnels at a length of 3 miles 13 yards (4,840 m); it was the first of several trans-Pennine tunnels including

2574-573: The Jungfraubahn and even the longest road tunnel in the world, Lærdalstunnelen , are constructed using this method. In 1990, 2.1 billion kg of commercial explosives were consumed in the United States (12 m per capita), representing an estimated expenditure of 3.5 to 4 billion 1993 dollars on blasting. In this year the Soviet Union was the leader in total volume with 2.7 billion kg of explosives consumed (13 m per capita), and Australia had

2673-756: The Mersey (including the Irwell , Tame and Goyt ) flow westwards towards the Irish Sea . On the eastern side of the Pennines, the rivers Tyne , Wear , and Tees all drain directly to the North Sea . The Swale , Ure , Nidd , Wharfe , Aire , Calder and Don all flow into the Yorkshire Ouse , and reach the sea through the Humber Estuary . The River Trent flows around the southern end of

2772-714: The Midland Railway built the Settle-Carlisle Line through remote, scenic regions of the Pennines from near Settle to Carlisle passing Appleby-in-Westmorland and other settlements, some a distance from their stations. The line has survived, despite difficult times and is operated by Northern Rail. The Trans Pennine Trail , a long-distance route for cyclists, horse riders and walkers, runs west–east alongside rivers and canals, along disused railway tracks and through historic towns and cities from Southport to Hornsea (207 miles/333 km). It crosses

2871-731: The National Park . The main economic activities in the North Pennines include tourism, farming, timber and small-scale quarrying, due to the rural landscape. Gaps that allow west–east communication across the Pennines include the Tyne Gap between the Pennines and the Cheviots, through which the A69 road and Tyne Valley railway link Carlisle and Newcastle upon Tyne . The A66 road , its summit at 1,450 feet (440 m), follows

2970-589: The Northumberland National Park (9) sometimes also included. The North Pennines AONB just north of the Yorkshire Dales rivals the national park in size and includes some of the Pennines' highest peaks and its most isolated and sparsely populated areas. Other AONBs are Nidderdale east of the Yorkshire Dales, and the Bowland Fells , including Pendle Hill , west of the Yorkshire Dales. The language used in pre-Roman and Roman times

3069-490: The Peak District National Park . The only significant unprotected gap is the area between Skipton and Marsden . Britain's oldest long-distance footpath , the 268-mile (429 km) Pennine Way , runs along most of the Pennines. Various etymologies have proposed treating "Pennine" as a native Brittonic /Modern Welsh name related to pen- ("head"). It did not become a common name until

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3168-408: The Peak District National Park . A 2 ft ( 610 mm ) narrow gauge railway has been built inside the tunnel for service engineers. In January 2008, work started to transfer the electric cable from the north tunnel to Woodhead 3. Woodhead 3 was substantially longer than the other two, at 3 miles 66 yards (4.888 km). It was bored for the overhead electrification of the route,

3267-592: The Sheffield, Ashton-under-Lyne and Manchester Railway . Work on the tunnel commenced in 1837. It was designed by the railway engineer Charles Vignoles , who was later substituted by the civil engineer Joseph Locke . When opened in 1845, Woodhead 1 was one of the world's longest railway tunnels and the first trans-Pennine tunnel. Woodhead 2 was completed in 1853. Both tunnels were difficult to maintain because of their narrowness and heavy traffic, estimated to be around 250 trains per day in either direction. As both tunnels were too narrow to allow for electrification , it

3366-455: The Standedge and Totley tunnels, which are only slightly longer. The first two tunnels were replaced by Woodhead 3, which was longer at 3 miles 66 yards (4860m). It was bored for the overhead electrification of the route and completed in 1953. The tunnel was opened by the transport minister Alan Lennox-Boyd on 3 June 1954. It was designed by Sir William Halcrow & Partners. The line

3465-420: The 1740s and accepted as genuine until the 1840s. In 2004, George Redmonds reassessed this, finding that numerous respected writers passed over the origin of the mountains' name in silence even in works dedicated to the topological etymology of Derbyshire and Lancashire . He found that the derivation from Bertram was widely believed and considered uncomfortable. In fact, Redmonds found repeated comparisons with

3564-542: The 18th century and almost certainly derives from modern comparisons with the Apennine Mountains , which run down the middle of Italy in a similar fashion. Following an 1853 article by Arthur Hussey, it has become a common belief that the name derives from a passage in The Description of Britain ( Latin : De Situ Britanniæ ), an infamous historical forgery concocted by Charles Bertram in

3663-445: The 1950s was partially made to eliminate the emissions produced by steam and diesel traction. The tunnels were too narrow to accommodate the overhead line equipment (OLE) necessary for the route's electrification and it was decided to close both tunnels in 1953, after the completion of the larger Woodhead 3 tunnel. Since 1963, Woodhead 2 has been used by National Grid plc to carry the trans-Pennine 400 kV electricity link under

3762-527: The Anglo-Saxons travelled through the valleys. During the Dark Ages the Pennines were controlled by Celtic and Anglo-Saxon kingdoms. It is believed that the north Pennines were under the control of the kingdom of Rheged . During Norse times the Pennines were settled by Viking Danes in the east and Norwegian Vikings in the west. The Vikings influenced place names, culture and genetics. When England

3861-706: The Border Moors and Cheviot Hills, separated by the Tyne Gap and Whin Sill , along which run the A69 and Hadrian's Wall , are not part of the Pennines but, perhaps because the Pennine Way crosses them, they are treated as such. Most of the Pennine landscape is characterised by upland areas of high moorland indented by more fertile river valleys, although the landscape varies in different areas. The Peak District consists of hills, plateaus and valleys, divided into

3960-501: The British civil engineer William Cubitt used 18,000 lbs of gunpowder to remove a 400-foot-high chalk cliff near Dover as part of the construction of the South Eastern Railway . About 400,000 cubic yards of chalk was displaced in an exercise that it was estimated saved the company six months time and £7,000 in expense. While drilling and blasting saw limited use in pre-industrial times using gunpowder (such as with

4059-729: The Commons stated that laying cables in the tunnel would not preclude opening the route to rail traffic. On 23 January 2008, the Department for Transport said that only the older tunnels, which were in poor condition, would be available. In December 2007, the Campaign for Better Transport (UK) campaigned to keep Woodhead 3 available for rail traffic. In 8 January 2008, the "Northern Way", a collaboration between three Northern Regional Development Agencies: Yorkshire Forward , Northwest Regional Development Agency and One NorthEast , called for

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4158-455: The Forest of Bowland include Ward's Stone 1,841 ft (561 m), Fair Snape Fell 1,710 ft (521 m), and Hawthornthwaite Fell 1,572 ft (479 m). Terrain is lower towards the south and the only peaks which exceed 2,000 ft (610 m) are Kinder Scout 2,087 ft (636 m) and Bleaklow 2,077 ft (633 m) in the Peak District. Other principal peaks in

4257-583: The Forest of Bowland to the southwest. The main range then continues northwards across the Yorkshire Dales to the Stainmore Gap where it adjoins the North Pennines. The range continues into its northern end at the Tyne Gap , separating it from the Border Moors and Cheviot Hills across the Anglo-Scottish border . Although the Pennines cover the area between the Peak District and the Tyne Gap,

4356-533: The Government Office for the East Midlands indicated that it was unlikely that the route would be used for rail traffic again, and declined to intervene. On 4 December 2007, 57 MPs signed an early day motion in the Commons, brought by Manchester Blackley MP Graham Stringer , expressing concern at laying cables in a tunnel that was viable for rail traffic. On 18 December, a written answer in

4455-471: The Italian Apennines going back at least as early as William Camden (1551–1623) , many of whose placenames and ideas Bertram incorporated into his work. Bertram was responsible (at most) with popularizing the name against other contenders such as Daniel Defoe 's "English Andes". His own form of the name was the "Pennine Alps" ( Alpes Peninos ), which today is used for a western section of

4554-649: The Peak District and adjoin the South Pennines approximately around the Tame Valley , Standedge and Holme Valley . The South Pennines are separated from the Forest of Bowland by the Ribble Valley , and include the Rossendale Valley and West Pennine Moors in the west. The range continues further north into the Aire Gap which separates the Yorkshire Dales from the South Pennines to the south and

4653-861: The Peak District the A628 Woodhead road links the M67 motorway in Greater Manchester with the M1 motorway in South Yorkshire and Holme Moss is crossed by the A6024 road , whose highest point is near Holme Moss transmitting station between Longdendale and Holmfirth . The Pennines are traversed by the M62 motorway , the highest motorway in England at 1,221 feet (372 m) on Windy Hill near Junction 23. Three trans-Pennine canals built during

4752-435: The Peak District, a notable custom is well dressing , which has its origin in pagan traditions that became Christianised. Flora in the higher Pennines is adapted to moorland and subarctic landscapes and climates. The flora found there can be found in other areas of moorland in Northern Europe and some species are also found in areas of tundra . In the Pennine millstone grit areas above an altitude of 900 feet (270 m)

4851-403: The Peak District, the deepest shaft known in Britain, is connected to Peak Cavern in Castleton, Derbyshire , the largest cave entrance in the country. Erosion of the limestone has led to geological formations, such as the limestone pavements at Malham Cove . Between the northern and southern areas of exposed limestone between Skipton and the Dark Peak is a belt of exposed gritstone. Here

4950-466: The Pennine Way affects perceptions of the southern and northern extents of the defined area. The southern end of the Pennines is said to be in the High Peak of Derbyshire at Edale , the start of the Pennine Way, but the main range continues south across the Peak District to the Weaver Hills, with its foothills merging into the Trent Valley. This encompasses eastern Cheshire , northern and eastern Staffordshire , and southern Derbyshire. Conversely,

5049-423: The Pennines and northwards on the eastern side taking water from tributaries, principally the Dove and Derwent . The Trent drains the east and west sides of the southern Pennines, also reaching the North Sea through the Humber Estuary. The Trent and Ouse meet and enter the Humber at Trent Falls . Maximum discharge through the Humber can reach 1,500 m /s (53,000 cu ft/s). According to the Köppen classification ,

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5148-442: The Pennines generally have a temperate oceanic climate ( Cfb ) like the rest of England, but the uplands have more precipitation, stronger winds and colder weather than the surrounding areas. Some of the higher elevations have a subpolar oceanic climate ( Cfc ), which may border a tundra ( ET ) and subarctic climate ( Dfc ) in areas like Great Dun Fell . More snow falls on the Pennines than on surrounding lowland areas due to

5247-751: The Pennines longer than it did in the surrounding areas of England. Eventually, the Celtic tongue of the Pennines was replaced by early English as Anglo-Saxons and Vikings settled the area and assimilated the Celts. During the Viking Age Scandinavian settlers brought their language, Old Norse . The fusion of Norse influences into Old English was important in the formation of Middle English and hence Modern English, and many individual words of Norse descent remain in use in local dialects, such as that of Yorkshire , and in local place names. The folklore and customs are mostly based on Celtic , Anglo-Saxon and Viking customs and folklore. Many customs and stories have their origin in Christianised pagan traditions. In

5346-469: The South Pennines and Peak District include Black Hill 1,909 ft (582 m), Shining Tor 1,834 ft (559 m), Pendle Hill 1,827 ft (557 m), Black Chew Head 1,778 ft (542 m), Rombalds Moor 1,319 ft (402 m) and Winter Hill 1,496 ft (456 m). For much of their length the Pennines are the main watershed in northern England, dividing east and west. The rivers Eden , Ribble , Dane and tributaries of

5445-437: The South Pennines include tourism and farming. Although the Forest of Bowland is mostly rural, the main economic activities in the area include farming and tourism. In the Yorkshire Dales , tourism accounts for £350 million of expenditure every year while employment is mostly dominated by farming, accommodation and food sectors. There are also significant challenges for managing tourism, farming and other developments within

5544-402: The Woodhead route. In 2007 the Trans-Pennine Rail Group was dissolved and its responsibilities transferred to the Northern Way and the North West Rail Campaign. In July 2003, the Greater Manchester Branch of the Chartered Institute of Logistics and Transport , presented evidence to a parliamentary select committee , stating that Arriva had an interest in reopening the Woodhead Line as part of

5643-438: The blast, suppress dust and noise, for fly rock prevention and sometimes to direct the blast. As a tunnel or excavation progresses the roof and side walls need to be supported to stop the rock falling into the excavation. The philosophy and methods for rock support vary widely but typical rock support systems can include: Typically a rock support system would include a number of these support methods, each intended to undertake

5742-420: The botanical conservation charity Plantlife , and are nationally important for their wildflowers. Fauna in the Pennines is similar to the rest of England and Wales , but the area hosts some specialised species. Deer are found throughout the Pennines and some species of animals that are rare elsewhere in England can be found here. Arctic hares , which were common in Britain during the Ice Age and retreated to

5841-469: The construction and prepared contingencies. Soon after taking over, he reported that the amount of water being encountered required more powerful pumps. Although the number of people employed reached 1,500, generally there were around 400 in the tunnel because of limited space in which to work. It was estimated that around 157 tons of gunpowder were consumed during blasting , while over 8 million tons of water were pumped out during construction. The first tunnel

5940-506: The continental Alps . Those mountains (the area around the St. Bernard Pass ) derive their name from the Latin Alpes Pœninæ whose name has been variously derived from the Carthaginians , a local god, and Celtic peninus . The St. Bernard Pass was the pass used in the invasions of Italy by the Gallic Boii and Lingones in 390 BC. The etymology of the Apennines themselves—whose name first referred to their northern extremity and then later spread southward—is also disputed but

6039-413: The cooler, more tundra-like uplands once the climate warmed up, were introduced to the Dark Peak area of the Peak District in the 19th century. Drilling and blasting Drilling and blasting currently utilizes many different varieties of explosives with different compositions and performance properties. Higher velocity explosives are used for relatively hard rock in order to shatter and break

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6138-428: The course of a Roman road from Scotch Corner to Penrith through the Stainmore Gap between the Eden Valley in Cumbria and Teesdale in County Durham. The Aire Gap links Lancashire and Yorkshire via the valleys of the Aire and Ribble . Other high-level roads include Buttertubs Pass , named from limestone potholes near its 1,729-foot (527 m) summit, between Hawes in Wensleydale and Swaledale and

6237-442: The dales with mostly pine, elm, lime and oak. On the limestone soils the oak was slower to colonize and pine and birch predominated. Around 3000 BC a noticeable decline in tree pollen indicates that neolithic farmers were clearing woodland to increase grazing for domestic livestock, and studies at Linton Mires and Eshton Tarn find an increase in grassland species. On poorly drained impermeable areas of millstone grit, shale or clays

6336-455: The early 2000s were coming to the end of their operational life. The National Grid proposed installing new cables in Woodhead 3 which would prevent its restoration for rail traffic. The older tunnels are unsuitable for rail traffic, because of their poor state of repair. In July 2007, the Peak District National Park expressed concern at the plans to place cables in Woodhead 3, observing that it could not be used for rail traffic. In September 2007,

6435-491: The elevation and distance from the coast; unlike lowland areas of England, the Pennines can have quite severe winters. The northwest is amongst the wettest regions of England and much of the rain falls on the Pennines. The eastern side is drier than the west—the rain shadow shields northeast England from rainfall that would otherwise fall there. Precipitation is important for the area's biodiversity and human population. Many towns and cities are located along rivers flowing from

6534-505: The full price led to controversy; he resigned from his position in 1838. The line of the railway was marked over the ridge and five vertical shafts were sunk. From the shaft bases, a horizontal drift was driven along the line. Although sufficient land had been purchased for the construction of a pair of tunnels, it was decided that only one would be built. The tunnel's bore passed through ground largely composed of Millstone Grit interspersed with argillaceous shale and softer sandstone on

6633-476: The government to ensure the potential reuse of Woodhead Tunnels for rail use in the future. The Northern Way had previously published claims that the tunnel's economic benefit could be as much as £10 billion nationally, of which £3.5 billion had been forecast to occur in the North. On 15 January 2008, around one hundred protesters gathered at the end of the Woodhead Tunnel, protesting against its planned reuse in carrying electricity cables. Around this time,

6732-404: The ground. The use of explosives in mining goes back to the year 1627, when gunpowder was first used in place of mechanical tools in the Hungarian (now Slovak ) town of Banská Štiavnica . The innovation spread quickly throughout Europe and the Americas. The standard method for blasting rocks was to drill a hole to a considerable depth and deposit a charge of gunpowder at the further end of

6831-421: The harsh working conditions. Woodhead 1 is in worse condition than Woodhead 2; it has suffered several collapses and is unsuitable for cabling or transport purposes. The second bore, also referred to as the north tunnel, was undertaken by the Manchester, Sheffield and Lincolnshire Railway . Its construction was speeded up by the decision to construct 25 side access connections from Woodhead 1, in anticipation of

6930-428: The head streams of the river valleys. Most of the range is protected by national parks and national landscapes (formerly Areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty ). Running north to south, and including the Cheviots, the range is within Northumberland National Park , the North Pennines National Landscape, the Yorkshire Dales National Park , Nidderdale National Landscape , the Forest of Bowland National Landscape, and

7029-494: The highest per capita explosives consumption that year with 45 m per capita. As the name suggests, drilling and blasting works as follows: The positions and depths of the holes (and the amount of explosive each hole receives) are determined by a carefully constructed pattern, which, together with the correct timing of the individual explosions, will guarantee that the tunnel will have an approximately circular cross-section. During operation, blasting mats may be used to contain

7128-428: The hole and then fill the remainder of the hole with clay or some other soft mineral substance, well rammed, to make it as tight as possible. A wire laid in the hole during this process was then removed and replaced with a train of gunpowder. This train was ignited by a slow match , often consisting simply of brown paper smeared with grease, intended to burn long enough to allow the person who fires it enough time to reach

7227-584: The mountainous terrain in the north. The highest point is Cross Fell in eastern Cumbria, at 2,930 feet (893 m) and other principal peaks in the North Pennines are Great Dun Fell 2,782 ft (848 m), Mickle Fell 2,585 ft (788 m), and Burnhope Seat 2,451 ft (747 m). Principal peaks in the Yorkshire Dales include Whernside 2,415 ft (736 m), Ingleborough 2,372 ft (723 m), High Seat 2,328 ft (710 m), Wild Boar Fell 2,324 ft (708 m) and Pen-y-ghent 2,274 ft (693 m). Principal peaks in

7326-513: The north–south Pennine Way (268 miles/431 km) at Crowden-in-Longdendale . Considerable areas of the Pennines are protected as UK national parks and Areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty (AONBs). Areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty are afforded much the same protection as national parks. The national parks within the Pennines are the Peak District National Park (1) and the Yorkshire Dales National Park (7) with

7425-400: The range and in northwest England the lack of natural aquifers is compensated for by reservoirs. Water has carved out limestone landscapes in the North Pennines, Yorkshire Dales and Peak District, with gorges and caves present in the Yorkshire Dales and Peak District. In some areas, precipitation has contributed to poor soils, resulting in part in moorland landscapes that characterize much of

7524-551: The range runs from Derbyshire and Staffordshire in the north of the Midlands to Northumberland in North East England . From the Tyne Gap in the north, the range extends south through the North Pennines , Yorkshire Dales , South Pennines , and Peak District to end near the valley of the River Trent . The Border Moors and Cheviot Hills , which lie beyond the Tyne Gap, are included in some definitions of

7623-618: The range. The range is divided into two by the Aire Gap , a wide pass formed by the valleys of the rivers Aire and Ribble . There are several spurs off the main Pennine range east into Greater Manchester and Lancashire , comprising the Rossendale Fells , West Pennine Moors , and Bowland Fells . The Howgill Fells and Orton Fells in Cumbria are also sometimes considered to be Pennine spurs. The Pennines are an important water catchment area, with numerous reservoirs in

7722-546: The range. In other areas where the soil has not been degraded, it has resulted in lush vegetation. For the purpose of growing plants, the Pennines are in hardiness zones 7 and 8, as defined by the USDA . Zone 8 is common throughout most of the UK, and zone 7 is the UK's coldest hardiness zone. The Pennines, Scottish Highlands , Southern Uplands and Snowdonia are the only areas of the UK in zone 7. The Pennines have been carved from

7821-453: The rock, while low velocity explosives are used in soft rocks to generate more gas pressure and a greater heaving effect. For instance, an early 20th-century blasting manual compared the effects of black powder to that of a wedge, and dynamite to that of a hammer. The most commonly used explosives in mining today are ANFO based blends due to lower cost than dynamite . Before the advent of tunnel boring machines (TBMs), drilling and blasting

7920-488: The shales and sandstones of the Millstone Grit form high hills occupied by moorland covered with bracken , peat , heather and coarse grasses; the higher ground is uncultivable and barely fit for pasture. The Pennines contained Bronze Age settlements, and evidence remains of Neolithic settlement including many stone circles and henges , such as Long Meg and Her Daughters . The uplands were controlled by

8019-709: The surrounding foothills and lowlands. The Pennines contain the highest village in the United Kingdom, Flash , at 1,519 feet (463 m), near the southern end of the range in Staffordshire . The main economic activities in the Pennines include sheep farming , quarrying , finance and tourism . In the Peak District , tourism is the major local employment for park residents (24%), with manufacturing industries (19%) and quarrying (12%) also being important while 12% are employed in agriculture. Limestone

8118-488: The topsoil gets waterlogged in winter and spring. Here tree suppression combined with the heavier rainfall results in blanket bog up to 7 ft (2 m) thick. The erosion of peat still exposes stumps of ancient trees. "In digging it away they frequently find vast fir trees, perfectly sound, and some oaks ..." Limestone areas of the Pennines in the White Peak , Yorkshire Dales and Upper Teesdale have been designated as nature reserves or Important Plant Areas by

8217-518: The topsoil is so acidic, pH 2 to 4, that it can grow only bracken , heather , sphagnum , and coarse grasses such as cottongrass , purple moor grass and heath rush . As the Ice age glacial sheets retreated c. 11,500 BC trees returned and archaeological palynology can identify their species. The first trees to settle were willow, birch and juniper, followed later by alder and pine. By 6500 BC temperatures were warmer and woodlands covered 90% of

8316-610: The traffic and reducing the need for the bypass. The Victorian tunnels, rebored to a broader diameter akin to that of the Channel Tunnel , were envisioned as a key component of the main east–west route of the High Speed UK , an alternative to High Speed 2 and High Speed 3 . Woodhead 1 is in poor condition and unused. For several decades, Woodhead 2 has carried electrical cables for the National Grid which by

8415-592: The tribal federation of the Brigantes , made up of small tribes who inhabited the area and cooperated on defence and external affairs. They evolved an early form of kingdom. During Roman times , the Brigantes were dominated by the Romans who exploited the Pennines for their natural resources including the wild animals found there. The Pennines were an obstacle for Anglo-Saxon expansion westwards, although it appears

8514-573: The tunnel attached to metal framework. Six cables run along each wall, each about 12 inches (300 mm) in diameter with thick insulation and other ducting and cables run along the floor. At the western end, the old concrete and tarmac platforms still stand. In November 2013, it was decided to seal the Victorian tunnels, following a decision by the government not to purchase them from the National Grid. Transport Minister Stephen Hammond said

8613-411: The tunnel but the line continued to host freight trains. The last train passed through the tunnels in 1981 when the line was closed. The tunnels are maintained and now used for other purposes. They are owned by National Grid plc , which used Woodhead 1 and 2 to carry power cables and, in 2008, controversially installed cables in Woodhead 3, which would create difficulties in reinstating rail services and

8712-451: The tunnel to railway traffic and use it to carry a section of a Manchester to Sheffield motorway through the Pennines. Only a short section of the M67 motorway was built, within Greater Manchester, and Woodhead 3 was never used by road traffic. During 1970, the final passenger services ran through the tunnel. The last train was run in July 1981. During 2007, National Grid plc, the owners of

8811-420: The tunnels, proposed moving electricity cables from the older tunnels to Woodhead 3. This sparked controversy as Woodhead 3 would no longer be available for reuse by railway traffic in the future. Protest groups advocated for it to be reserved to facilitate any such reopening. In 1999, the prospective Central Railway released a proposal to the Woodhead Tunnel as part of a scheme to link Liverpool and London with

8910-404: The upland and lowland landscapes. The landscape is higher and more mountainous in the Yorkshire Dales and North Pennines. The Yorkshire Dales are characterised by valleys, moorlands and fells while the North Pennines consist of plateaus, moorlands, fells, edges and valleys, with most of the higher peaks in the west. Rising less than 3,000 feet (900 m), the Pennines are fells , with most of

9009-401: The water content of the surrounding rock was lowered, resulting in less infiltration into the new tunnel. Work on the new tunnel was completed in 1953. Woodhead 3 was officially opened by transport minister Alan Lennox-Boyd on 3 June 1954. It had cost £4.3 million (equivalent to £156,280,000 in 2023). Six people lost their lives during the work. In the 1960s, a proposal was made to close

9108-644: Was Common Brittonic . During the Early Middle Ages , the Cumbric language developed. Little evidence of Cumbric remains, so it is difficult to ascertain whether or not it was distinct from Old Welsh . The extent of the region in which Cumbric was spoken is also unknown. During Anglo-Saxon times the area was settled by Anglian peoples of Mercia and Northumbria , rather than the Saxon people of Southern England . Celtic speech remained in most areas of

9207-461: Was appointed engineer by the SA&;MR. He surveyed the route between Sheffield and Manchester, recognising the necessity of the Woodhead Tunnel. Vignoles was responsible for the tunnel's design and specification and was involved in other activities for the company, including fundraising. His decision to use his own resources to purchase shares under an alleged understanding that he would not have to pay

9306-621: Was closed in 1981. The London and North Western Railway acquired the Huddersfield and Manchester Railway in 1847 and built a single-line tunnel parallel to the canal tunnel at Standedge with a length of 3 miles, 57 yards (4803 m). Today rail services along the Huddersfield line between Huddersfield and Victoria and Piccadilly stations in Manchester are operated by TransPennine Express and Northern . Between 1869 and 1876

9405-485: Was completed during 1845. When completed, Woodhead 1 was one of the world's longest railway tunnels at 3 miles 13 yards (4,840 m). It was the first trans-Pennine railway tunnel to be built, preceding the Standedge and Totley Tunnels which are slightly longer. The tunnel had cost roughly £200,000 (equivalent to £24,990,000 in 2023) to build. The human cost was high: 30 people lost their lives, 200 workers were maimed and 450 suffered some form of injury in

9504-468: Was decided to construct a third tunnel in the 1950s. Woodhead 3 opened in 1953, almost 100 years after Woodhead 2. Although the Hope Valley line was recommended for closure in the Beeching Report, instead, the government decided to cease passenger services on the Woodhead line, allegedly due to the high cost of upgrading and modernising the route. In 1970, the last passenger services ran through

9603-537: Was resisted by a sizeable campaign. The first Woodhead Tunnel, also referred to as the south tunnel, was undertaken by the Sheffield, Ashton-under-Lyne and Manchester Railway (SA&MR) company. Work commenced as soon as the line had obtained its act of incorporation in Parliament in 1837 and work on the tunnel commenced in October 1838, although its design was not finalised until April 1839. Charles Vignoles

9702-509: Was the only economical way of excavating long tunnels through hard rock, where digging is not possible. Even today, the method is still used in the construction of tunnels, such as in the construction of the Lötschberg Base Tunnel . The decision whether to construct a tunnel using a TBM or using a drill and blast method includes a number of factors. Tunnel length is a key issue that needs to be addressed because large TBMs for

9801-506: Was unified the Pennines were incorporated. The mix of Celtic, Anglo-Saxon and Viking heritage resembled much of the rest of northern England and its culture developed alongside its lowland neighbours in northwest and northeast England. The Pennines were not a distinct political polity , but were divided between neighbouring counties in northeast and northwest England; a major part was in the West Riding of Yorkshire . The Pennine region

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