Misplaced Pages

#708291

47-607: As of May 2020, the WTCA included 323 properties licensed in 90 countries and staffed by "15,000 WTC professionals". The WTCA is an unofficial umbrella trade association that unites corporations and government agencies in international trade. In 2013, it was disclosed that the Association benefited substantially from its use of the "World Trade Center" name after the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey transferred to

94-420: A broad category of actions. For example, verbs such as stare , gaze , view and peer can also be considered hyponyms of the verb look , which is their hypernym. The meaning relation between hyponyms and hypernyms applies to lexical items of the same word class (that is, part of speech) , and holds between senses rather than words. For instance, the word screwdriver used in the previous example refers to

141-523: A dog, it's a bitch" ("That hypernym Z isn't a hyponym Z, it's a hyponym Y"). The term "autohyponym" was coined by linguist Laurence R. Horn in a 1984 paper, Ambiguity, negation, and the London School of Parsimony. Linguist Ruth Kempson had already observed that if there are hyponyms for one part of a set but not another, the hypernym can complement the existing hyponym by being used for the remaining part. For example, fingers describe all digits on

188-666: A few cases new verbs are created by appending -ru ( 〜る ) to a noun or using it to replace the end of a word. This is mostly in casual speech for borrowed words, with the most well-established example being sabo-ru ( サボる , cut class; play hooky) , from sabotāju ( サボタージュ , sabotage) . This recent innovation aside, the huge contribution of Sino-Japanese vocabulary was almost entirely borrowed as nouns (often verbal nouns or adjectival nouns). Other languages where adjectives are closed class include Swahili, Bemba , and Luganda . By contrast, Japanese pronouns are an open class and nouns become used as pronouns with some frequency;

235-445: A generic term (hypernym) and a more specific term (hyponym). The hypernym is also called a supertype, umbrella term, or blanket term. The hyponym names a subtype of the hypernym. The semantic field of the hyponym is included within that of the hypernym. For example, pigeon , crow , and hen are all hyponyms of bird and animal ; bird and animal are both hypernyms of pigeon, crow, and hen . A core concept of hyponymy

282-439: A given language): Within a given category, subgroups of words may be identified based on more precise grammatical properties. For example, verbs may be specified according to the number and type of objects or other complements which they take. This is called subcategorization . Many modern descriptions of grammar include not only lexical categories or word classes, but also phrasal categories , used to classify phrases , in

329-419: A given word form can often be identified as belonging to a particular part of speech and having certain additional grammatical properties . In English, most words are uninflected, while the inflected endings that exist are mostly ambiguous: -ed may mark a verbal past tense, a participle or a fully adjectival form; -s may mark a plural noun, a possessive noun, or a present-tense verb form; -ing may mark

376-412: A hand, but the existence of the word thumb for the first finger means that fingers can also be used for "non-thumb digits on a hand". Autohyponymy is also called "vertical polysemy ". Horn called this "licensed polysemy ", but found that autohyponyms also formed even when there is no other hyponym. Yankee is autohyponymous because it is a hyponym (native of New England) and its hypernym (native of

423-498: A more general word than its hyponym, the relation is used in semantic compression by generalization to reduce a level of specialization . The notion of hyponymy is particularly relevant to language translation , as hyponyms are very common across languages. For example, in Japanese the word for older brother is ani ( 兄 ) , and the word for younger brother is otōto ( 弟 ) . An English-to-Japanese translator presented with

470-624: A participle, gerund , or pure adjective or noun. Although -ly is a frequent adverb marker, some adverbs (e.g. tomorrow , fast , very ) do not have that ending, while many adjectives do have it (e.g. friendly , ugly , lovely ), as do occasional words in other parts of speech (e.g. jelly , fly , rely ). Many English words can belong to more than one part of speech. Words like neigh , break , outlaw , laser , microwave , and telephone might all be either verbs or nouns. In certain circumstances, even words with primarily grammatical functions can be used as verbs or nouns, as in, "We must look to

517-476: A phrase containing the English word brother would have to choose which Japanese word equivalent to use. This would be difficult, because abstract information (such as the speakers' relative ages) is often not available during machine translation . Part of speech In grammar , a part of speech or part-of-speech ( abbreviated as POS or PoS , also known as word class or grammatical category )

SECTION 10

#1732773205709

564-467: A sentence, for instance). New verbal meanings are nearly always expressed periphrastically by appending suru ( する , to do) to a noun, as in undō suru ( 運動する , to (do) exercise) , and new adjectival meanings are nearly always expressed by adjectival nouns , using the suffix -na ( 〜な ) when an adjectival noun modifies a noun phrase, as in hen-na ojisan ( 変なおじさん , strange man) . The closedness of verbs has weakened in recent years, and in

611-503: A separate class), adjectives , adverbs and interjections . Ideophones are often an open class, though less familiar to English speakers, and are often open to nonce words . Typical closed classes are prepositions (or postpositions), determiners , conjunctions , and pronouns . The open–closed distinction is related to the distinction between lexical and functional categories , and to that between content words and function words , and some authors consider these identical, but

658-628: A separate part of speech, and numerals are often conflated with other parts of speech: nouns ( cardinal numerals , e.g., "one", and collective numerals , e.g., "dozen"), adjectives ( ordinal numerals , e.g., "first", and multiplier numerals , e.g., "single") and adverbs ( multiplicative numerals , e.g., "once", and distributive numerals , e.g., "singly"). Eight or nine parts of speech are commonly listed: Some traditional classifications consider articles to be adjectives, yielding eight parts of speech rather than nine. And some modern classifications define further classes in addition to these. For discussion see

705-449: Is pronouns , prepositions , and the article ). By the end of the 2nd century BCE, grammarians had expanded this classification scheme into eight categories, seen in the Art of Grammar , attributed to Dionysius Thrax : It can be seen that these parts of speech are defined by morphological , syntactic and semantic criteria. The Latin grammarian Priscian ( fl. 500 CE) modified

752-615: Is "An X is a kind/type of Y". The second relation is said to be more discriminating and can be classified more specifically under the concept of taxonomy. If the hypernym Z consists of hyponyms X and Y, then X and Y are identified as co-hyponyms (cohyponyms), also known as coordinate terms. Co-hyponyms are labelled as such when separate hyponyms share the same hypernym but are not hyponyms of one another, unless they happen to be synonymous. For example, screwdriver , scissors , knife , and hammer are all co-hyponyms of one another and hyponyms of tool , but not hyponyms of one another: *"A hammer

799-441: Is "type of", whereas "instance of" is differentiable. For example, for the noun city , a hyponym (naming a type of city) is capital city or capital , whereas Paris and London are instances of a city, not types of city. In linguistics , semantics , general semantics , and ontologies , hyponymy (from Ancient Greek ὑπό ( hupó )  'under' and ὄνυμα ( ónuma )  'name') shows

846-735: Is a category of words (or, more generally, of lexical items ) that have similar grammatical properties. Words that are assigned to the same part of speech generally display similar syntactic behavior (they play similar roles within the grammatical structure of sentences), sometimes similar morphological behavior in that they undergo inflection for similar properties and even similar semantic behavior. Commonly listed English parts of speech are noun , verb , adjective , adverb , pronoun , preposition , conjunction , interjection , numeral , article , and determiner . Other terms than part of speech —particularly in modern linguistic classifications, which often make more precise distinctions than

893-400: Is a hyponym of color . A word can be both a hypernym and a hyponym: for example purple is a hyponym of color but itself is a hypernym of the broad spectrum of shades of purple between the range of crimson and violet . The hierarchical structure of semantic fields can be seen in hyponymy. They could be observed from top to bottom, where the higher level is more general and the lower level

940-431: Is a type of knife " is false. Co-hyponyms are often but not always related to one another by the relation of incompatibility. For example, apple , peach and plum are co-hyponyms of fruit . However, an apple is not a peach , which is also not a plum . Thus, they are incompatible. Nevertheless, co-hyponyms are not necessarily incompatible in all senses . A queen and mother are both hyponyms of woman but there

987-516: Is autohyponymous because "smell" can also mean "to emit a bad smell", even though there is no "to emit a smell that isn't bad" hyponym. Hyperonym and hypernym mean the same thing, with both in use by linguists. The form hypernym interprets the -o- of hyponym as a part of hypo , such as in hypertension and hypotension . However, etymologically the -o- is part of the Greek stem ónoma . In other combinations with this stem, e.g. synonym , it

SECTION 20

#1732773205709

1034-727: Is found from the earliest moments in the history of linguistics . In the Nirukta , written in the 6th or 5th century BCE, the Sanskrit grammarian Yāska defined four main categories of words: These four were grouped into two larger classes: inflectable (nouns and verbs) and uninflectable (pre-verbs and particles). The ancient work on the grammar of the Tamil language , Tolkāppiyam , argued to have been written around 2nd century CE, classifies Tamil words as peyar (பெயர்; noun), vinai (வினை; verb), idai (part of speech which modifies

1081-400: Is more specific. For example, living things will be the highest level followed by plants and animals , and the lowest level may comprise dog , cat and wolf . Under the relations of hyponymy and incompatibility, taxonomic hierarchical structures too can be formed. It consists of two relations; the first one being exemplified in "An X is a Y" (simple hyponymy) while the second relation

1128-412: Is never elided. Therefore, hyperonym is etymologically more faithful than hypernym . Hyperonymy is used, for instance, by John Lyons, who does not mention hypernymy and prefers superordination . The nominalization hyperonymy is rarely used, because the neutral term to refer to the relationship is hyponymy . Computer science often terms this relationship an " is-a " relationship. For example,

1175-400: Is normally seen as part of the core language and is not expected to change. In English, for example, new nouns, verbs, etc. are being added to the language constantly (including by the common process of verbing and other types of conversion , where an existing word comes to be used in a different part of speech). However, it is very unusual for a new pronoun, for example, to become accepted in

1222-416: Is nothing preventing the queen from being a mother . This shows that compatibility may be relevant. A word is an autohyponym if it is used for both a hypernym and its hyponym: it has a stricter sense that is entirely a subset of a broader sense. For example, the word dog describes both the species Canis familiaris and male individuals of Canis familiaris , so it is possible to say "That dog isn't

1269-486: Is reflected in the older English terminology noun substantive , noun adjective and noun numeral . Later the adjective became a separate class, as often did the numerals, and the English word noun came to be applied to substantives only. Works of English grammar generally follow the pattern of the European tradition as described above, except that participles are now usually regarded as forms of verbs rather than as

1316-414: Is unfounded, or not applicable to certain languages. Modern linguists have proposed many different schemes whereby the words of English or other languages are placed into more specific categories and subcategories based on a more precise understanding of their grammatical functions. Common lexical category set defined by function may include the following (not all of them will necessarily be applicable in

1363-457: The hows and not just the whys ." The process whereby a word comes to be used as a different part of speech is called conversion or zero derivation. Linguists recognize that the above list of eight or nine word classes is drastically simplified. For example, "adverb" is to some extent a catch-all class that includes words with many different functions. Some have even argued that the most basic of category distinctions, that of nouns and verbs,

1410-408: The screwdriver tool , and not to the screwdriver drink . Hypernymy and hyponymy are converse relations . If X is a kind of Y, then X is a hyponym of Y and Y is a hypernym of X. Hyponymy is a transitive relation : if X is a hyponym of Y, and Y is a hyponym of Z, then X is a hyponym of Z. For example, violet is a hyponym of purple and purple is a hyponym of color ; therefore violet

1457-444: The Association in 1986 its local rights to the name for a token fee of $ 10. By licensing the use of the name to its members, including World Trade Center-branded merchandise, the Association generated considerable revenues while absorbing the heavy costs of registering the name and defending it against improper use in many countries. The terms of the licensing arrangement were not widely publicized until 2013 when it became known that

World Trade Centers Association - Misplaced Pages Continue

1504-686: The Port Authority had supported the mission of the Association by providing rent-free office space and other help, with Association staff serving as the trade assistance arm of the World Trade Center. In December 2018, Laura Taylor Swain , Chief United States district judge of the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York , held that the wording of the 1986 assignment to

1551-463: The United States), even though there is no other hyponym of Yankee (as native of the United States) that means "not a native of New England". Similarly, the verb to drink (a beverage) is a hypernym for to drink (an alcoholic beverage). In some cases, autohyponyms duplicate existing, distinct hyponyms. The hypernym "smell" (to emit any smell) has a hyponym "stink" (to emit a bad smell), but

1598-499: The World Trade Centers Association did not include trademark rights for WORLD TRADE CENTER (such as for souvenir items bearing that mark). The WTCA received only ownership of the mark for services, such as for licensing to entities around the world. The WTCA's founding principles are: The WTCA is governed by a 24-member international Board of Directors , composed of executives from WTCA members around

1645-663: The above eightfold system, excluding "article" (since the Latin language , unlike Greek, does not have articles) but adding " interjection ". The Latin names for the parts of speech, from which the corresponding modern English terms derive, were nomen , verbum , participium , pronomen , praepositio , adverbium , conjunctio and interjectio . The category nomen included substantives ( nomen substantivum , corresponding to what are today called nouns in English), adjectives (nomen adjectivum) and numerals (nomen numerale) . This

1692-408: The connection is not strict. Open classes are generally lexical categories in the stricter sense, containing words with greater semantic content, while closed classes are normally functional categories, consisting of words that perform essentially grammatical functions. This is not universal: in many languages verbs and adjectives are closed classes, usually consisting of few members, and in Japanese

1739-547: The formation of new pronouns from existing nouns is relatively common, though to what extent these form a distinct word class is debated. Words are added to open classes through such processes as compounding , derivation , coining , and borrowing . When a new word is added through some such process, it can subsequently be used grammatically in sentences in the same ways as other words in its class. A closed class may obtain new items through these same processes, but such changes are much rarer and take much more time. A closed class

1786-473: The language, even in cases where there may be felt to be a need for one, as in the case of gender-neutral pronouns . The open or closed status of word classes varies between languages, even assuming that corresponding word classes exist. Most conspicuously, in many languages verbs and adjectives form closed classes of content words. An extreme example is found in Jingulu , which has only three verbs, while even

1833-655: The modern Indo-European Persian has no more than a few hundred simple verbs, a great deal of which are archaic. (Some twenty Persian verbs are used as light verbs to form compounds; this lack of lexical verbs is shared with other Iranian languages.) Japanese is similar, having few lexical verbs. Basque verbs are also a closed class, with the vast majority of verbal senses instead expressed periphrastically. In Japanese , verbs and adjectives are closed classes, though these are quite large, with about 700 adjectives, and verbs have opened slightly in recent years. Japanese adjectives are closely related to verbs (they can predicate

1880-400: The phrase "Red is-a color" can be used to describe the hyponymic relationship between red and color . Hyponymy is the most frequently encoded relation among synsets used in lexical databases such as WordNet . These semantic relations can also be used to compare semantic similarity by judging the distance between two synsets and to analyse anaphora . As a hypernym can be understood as

1927-652: The relationship between a generic term (hypernym) and a specific instance of it (hyponym). A hyponym is a word or phrase whose semantic field is more specific than its hypernym. The semantic field of a hypernym, also known as a superordinate, is broader than that of a hyponym. An approach to the relationship between hyponyms and hypernyms is to view a hypernym as consisting of hyponyms. This, however, becomes more difficult with abstract words such as imagine , understand and knowledge . While hyponyms are typically used to refer to nouns, it can also be used on other parts of speech. Like nouns, hypernyms in verbs are words that refer to

World Trade Centers Association - Misplaced Pages Continue

1974-545: The relationships between verbs and nouns), and uri (word that further qualifies a noun or verb). A century or two after the work of Yāska, the Greek scholar Plato wrote in his Cratylus dialogue , "sentences are, I conceive, a combination of verbs [ rhêma ] and nouns [ ónoma ]". Aristotle added another class, "conjunction" [ sýndesmos ], which included not only the words known today as conjunctions , but also other parts (the interpretations differ; in one interpretation it

2021-495: The sections below. Additionally, there are other parts of speech including particles ( yes , no ) and postpositions ( ago , notwithstanding ) although many fewer words are in these categories. The classification below, or slight expansions of it, is still followed in most dictionaries : English words are not generally marked as belonging to one part of speech or another; this contrasts with many other European languages, which use inflection more extensively, meaning that

2068-662: The sense of groups of words that form units having specific grammatical functions. Phrasal categories may include noun phrases (NP), verb phrases (VP) and so on. Lexical and phrasal categories together are called syntactic categories . Word classes may be either open or closed. An open class is one that commonly accepts the addition of new words, while a closed class is one to which new items are very rarely added. Open classes normally contain large numbers of words, while closed classes are much smaller. Typical open classes found in English and many other languages are nouns , verbs (excluding auxiliary verbs , if these are regarded as

2115-680: The traditional scheme does—include word class , lexical class , and lexical category . Some authors restrict the term lexical category to refer only to a particular type of syntactic category ; for them the term excludes those parts of speech that are considered to be function words , such as pronouns. The term form class is also used, although this has various conflicting definitions. Word classes may be classified as open or closed : open classes (typically including nouns, verbs and adjectives) acquire new members constantly, while closed classes (such as pronouns and conjunctions) acquire new members infrequently, if at all. Almost all languages have

2162-434: The word classes noun and verb, but beyond these two there are significant variations among different languages. For example: Because of such variation in the number of categories and their identifying properties, analysis of parts of speech must be done for each individual language. Nevertheless, the labels for each category are assigned on the basis of universal criteria. The classification of words into lexical categories

2209-399: The world, and elected by the membership. Eight permanent committees have been established to carry on the work of the Association in the following fields: In December 2008, the WTCA awarded its first Global Corporate Leadership award to Robert Thompson, the founder of CenTradeX of Nashville, Tennessee. Umbrella term Hypernymy and hyponymy are the semantic relations between

#708291